ancient tribes

HPAS Notes: Cultural & Social Demography

1. Prehistoric Context: Evidence of Early Life

Discovery of Quartzite Implements

Fair reasons exist to believe that life existed in this part of the world during the earliest periods of human evolution, based on specific archaeological finds:

• Olaf Prufer (1951): Discovered quartzite implements in the Shivalik foothills near Nalagarh at the banks of the ‘Sirsa river’.
• B.B. Lal (1955): Discovered implements in Kangra district at Dehra and Guler on the banks of the Beas and Ban Ganga.

The Two Distinctive Cultural Zones

From a cultural point of view, Himachal Pradesh is broadly classified into two distinctive zones.

Zone 1: The Great Himalayas (Tribal Belt)

Characteristics

• Inhabitants: Tribes or semi-nomadic, semi-agricultural, and semi-pastoral people.
• Racial Composition: An admixture of the Indo-Aryan or Mongolian races.
• Geographical Area:
  • Districts of Lahaul-Spiti and Kinnaur.
  • Upper Shimla and Upper Kullu.
  • Interior of Sirmaur.
  • Pangi division of Chamba.
  • Remote parts of Kangra district.
• Major Tribes:
  • Kinnauras, Lahulas, Gaddis.
  • Jads (Lambas, Khampas, and Bhots or Bhods).
  • Pangwalas and Swanglas.

Zone 2: Outer & Mid-Himalayas (Shivaliks)

• Similarity to Plains: The people of this zone have much in common with those in the plains of Punjab.
• Distinction: The primary difference is that hill-dwellers are generally fairer in complexion.
• Reason for Similarity: The common habits and moorings are attributed to the continuous inter-migration of people during medieval and later periods.

Historical Waves of Migration

Why people moved to the Hills?

The text highlights three specific historical waves that shaped the Outer Himalayan culture:

• Reign of Aurangzeb: A great number of Hindus (Brahmins and Rajputs) migrated from the plains to these easily accessible lower parts of HP when they were persecuted.
• Mughal Harassment: Sikhs came and settled in Himachal Pradesh when they were harassed and driven by the Mughals (noting that relations between Sikhs and Mughals were historically never cordial).
• Partition (1947): When India was partitioned, Himachal Pradesh received its share of 4,660 displaced persons.

Summary: The Societal Blend

The resulting society in Himachal Pradesh is described as a unique blend:

• Tribal and Non-tribal.
• Semi-civilized and Civilized.
• Pastoral and Semi-industrial.
• Backward and Modernized.
• Identity: A mix of hills and plains culture.

HPAS Notes: The Dasas (Pre-Vedic Inhabitants)

1. Origins and Identity

• Region: The Shivalik hills are believed to have been inhabited during the pre-Vedic period by the ‘Dasas’.
• Associated Tribes: They are grouped along with ‘Panies’, ‘Asuras’, and ‘Vratyas’.

Connection to Indus Valley Civilization

The text notes a significant historical theory:

• The Dasas, along with the associated groups mentioned above, are supposed to be the authors of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

2. Conflict with Aryans

The Dasas did not submit easily to the incoming Aryans. They put up strong resistance to Aryan advancement.

Powerful Dasa Chiefs (Exam Key Fact)

The text lists four specific powerful chiefs who led this resistance:

• Chamuri
• Dhuni
• Pipru
• Sushna

3. Integration (Aryanization)

Eventually, the conflict gave way to assimilation. The Dasas were later accepted into the Aryan fold due to the constant efforts of two great Rishis:

• Rishi Vishwamitra
• Rishi Vashishta

HPAS Notes: The Kinners (Ancient Tribes)

1. Etymology and Appearance

• Origin of Word: The word ‘Kinner’ originated from two Sanskrit words: ‘Kim + Nara’.
• Meaning: It translates to “What kind of strange persons are they?”.
• Reason for Name: This question was raised because Kinner males do not have beards and moustaches as abundantly grown in males of other races.
• Mythological Look: They are described as ‘Ashwamukha’ (Half man and half horse).

2. Literary References

Ancient Texts (Yes/No Checklist)

• Rig Veda: Has NO reference to Kinners. (Important for elimination questions).
• Mahabharata: Contains references about them.
• Kalidas: Mentioned in his immortal epics, specifically in the book ‘Kumarasambhava’.

3. Geography and Habitat

• Ancient Habitat: They are believed to have inhabited the inner Himalayan terrain stretching right from the Ganges upto the Chandrabhaga (Chenab) river till the Gupta period.
• Present Status: The Kinner population is now confined to the Kinnaur district only.

4. Lineage and Legends

The Royal Connection

• Earliest King: According to legend, Pradumna (the son of Lord Krishna) was the earliest king of the Kinners.
• Modern Claim: It is believed that Raja Vir Bhadra Singh (six-time CM of HP) is the 131st descendant of this dynasty.

5. Anthropological & Linguistic Roots

The Munda Connection

Historical evidence points to a specific origin:

• Origin: They are of Munda origin.
• Evidence: This is based on the similarity of their grammar with that of ‘Mandari’, spoken by the aborigines of the ‘Chhota Nagpur’ area.
• Conclusion: This linguistic link speaks of the amalgamation of the Munda aboriginals with the Tibetans in very early times.

HPAS Notes: The Kiratas (Ancient Tribes)

1. Identity and Nomenclature

• Status: In the history of Kashmir, they have been mentioned as low-caste people along with ‘Kaivartas’ and ‘Chandalas’.
• Civilization: They were a well-organized society with a law and order system. They lived in towns and built forts.
• Literary Reference: The Bhairvi classic ‘Kiratarjuniya’ is woven around the historical battle that took place between the Kirata King and Arjuna.

Alternate Names (Mavana)

Later in history, the Kiratas came to be known as ‘Mavanas’ or ‘Mavies’ in the region across the Jamuna and the Satluj.

2. The Great Aryan-Kirata War

Shambar vs. Divodas (The 40-Year War)

The Aryans arrived in Himachal around 3000-2500 B.C., crossing the Ravi to reach the Beas valley. This led to a massive conflict:

• The Rivals:
  • Kirata King: Shambar (Ruled Lower Shivaliks from a stronghold near Baijnath).
  • Aryan King: Divodas.
• The Advisors:
  • Rishi Bharadwaj: Advisor to King Divodas.
  • Rig Veda Sources: The war is discussed by Rishi Vashishta and Vamdeva.
• Key Events:
  • Duration: The war lasted for forty years.
  • Destruction: It resulted in the destruction of Shambar’s ninety-nine forts.
  • The End: Shambar and his ally Verchi were killed at a place named ‘Udubraj’.

3. Aftermath of the War

• Other Defeats: The Aryans also defeated minor kings named Kirang, Parnya, and Chumri.
• Succession:
  • King Divodas was succeeded by his son ‘Sudas’.
  • Rishi Bharadwaj was succeeded by the illustrious leader Vashisht.

HPAS Notes: The Nagas (Ancient Tribes & Cult)

1. Identity and Origins

• Habitation: They inhabited the Himalayan region at one time in history.
• Belief System: They were worshippers of Nagas (Serpents).
• Cult Origin: The Naga cult is considered an offspring of the Shiva-Shakti cult and is still in vogue today.
• Literary Evidence: In the Puranas, there are elaborate references to the Nagas and Naga deities inhabiting the hills and water springs.

2. Mythology and Kings

The Eight Mythological Nagas

Hindu mythology lists eight prominent Nagas:

• Shesh (Most significant; believed to support the earth on his head).
• Takshaka.
• Vasuki.
• Vajara.
• Danshan.
• Kar Kotik.
• Kemmali.
• Sankhu and Kali.

Famous Kings: The text specifically names Vasuki, Kali, and Takshaka as famous kings of this tribe.

3. Festivals and Deities

• Major Festival: ‘Naga Panchami’, which falls in the month of July.
• Goddess of Snakes: ‘Mansa Devi’ is worshipped as the goddess of snakes.

4. Geographical Distribution of Shrines

Important Naga Shrines (District-wise)

Mandi District:

• ‘Nagchala’ near Mandi town.
• ‘Rewalsar lake’.
• ‘Kamru Naga’.

Kangra District (Known for Snake Bite Cures):

• ‘Shibu-Ka-Than’ (Nurpur).
• ‘Saloh’ (Palampur).
• ‘Tripal’ (Kangra).

Chamba District:

• ‘Kelang Naga’ temple near the village Kugti (Bharmaur).

Kashmir (Historical Link):

• ‘Aba van’: A ruined historical temple in Kashmir visited by snake-worshippers in the past.

HPAS Notes: The Khasas (Ancient Tribes)

1. Identity and Origins

• Linguistic Theory: Famous philologist Grierson suggests that the earlier known Indo-Aryans of the Himalayan tract were Khasas.
• Current Representation: At present, they represent both the Brahmin and Kshatriya parts of the population.
• Self-Identification: In Kinnaur, they call themselves ‘Khashiya’ and associate themselves with the Rajputs.
• Manu’s View: Manu also recognized Khasas with Kshatriyas.

The “Shudra” Classification Controversy

Despite being linked to Aryans, their social status fluctuates in ancient texts:

• Aryan Fold: It is believed they were taken into the Aryan fold completely in the past.
• Denigration: However, Indo-Aryan literature denigrated them to the position of ‘Shudras’.
• Reason: This was because they did not observe the Aryan rites.

2. Geographical Distribution & History

• Ancient Homeland: Their homeland was ‘Khasdesh’, situated between the North Western provinces and Nepal.
• Settlement Range: Their settlement extended from Eastern Turkistan over Kashmir to Nepal and Assam.
• Naming Influence: They gave the name to Khagsar and Kashmir.
• Current Location: Distributed in Shimla, Sirmaur, parts of Kullu and Kinnaur (HP), and Tehri, Kumaon, Garhwal (Uttarakhand).

3. Literary Evidence

References in Texts

• Sources: Found in Puranic and epic literature (Bhagvata Purana, Vayu Purana).
• Brihat Samhita: In this text by Varahmihira, Khasas were mentioned alongside Kulutas (inhabitants of Kullu), Tanganas, and Kashniras.
• Ethnic Stock: Khasira of Nepal, Kasya of Kumaon/Garhwal are people of the same ethnic stock.

4. The Struggle for Supremacy

Khasas vs. Aborigines (Outcome)

The arrival of the Khasas reshaped the Himalayan demographic map:

• The Contenders: After the Aryans took to the plains, the remnants of Kiratas, Kinners, Nagas, Yakshas, and the newly arrived Khasas contended for power in the hills.
• The Victor: Ultimately, the Khasas emerged victorious.
• The Losers:
  • Kiratas and Kinners: Were pushed to the inaccessible areas (explaining their current tribal status).
  • Nagas and Yakshas: Were lost to history.

5. Key Term: “Khas Brahmin”

• Definition: In the Jaunsar Bawar area of Uttarakhand and Chopal/Shillai areas of Himachal Pradesh, ‘Khas Brahmins’ are those Brahmins who entered matrimonial alliances with the Khasas.

HPAS Notes: Social Life of the Khasas

1. Traditional Dress

The Khasa community does not have a single uniform dress; it varies according to local conditions.

Regional Variations (Kinnaur vs. Others)

• In Kinnaur:
  • Men & Women: Both use ‘gachi’ (waist string) and ‘chhuba’ (long coat).
  • Women: Specifically wear ‘dohru’ (a warm sari).
• In Other Areas:
  • Women: Use ‘thipuh’ (head scarf).
  • Men: Wear ‘achkan’ with folds inside.

2. Food and Dietary Habits

Staple Diet & Dishes

• Staple Grains: Wheat, rice, maize, and barley.
• Pulses: Rajmah, mah, moong, arhar, and channa.
• Non-Vegetarian: They are non-vegetarian, consuming meat (goat, sheep, wild birds/animals), fish, pork, and eggs.
• Special Dishes: ‘Poltu’ and ‘Siddu’ are quite popular.

3. Unique Dietary Features

• Alcohol: They have a tendency towards both local and non-local alcoholic drinks.
• Milk Scarcity: Milk is not much in use. This is because of the difficult terrain, leading to a scarcity of buffaloes and other milching animals.

HPAS Notes: Social Life of Khasas (Marriage Systems)

1. Classification of Marriage Types

The Khasas practice three distinct types of marriage systems. This divergence is based on the method of arrangement and the location of the ceremony:

The Three Forms

• 1. Biyah System:
  • This is the standard arranged marriage.
  • Definition: Marital relations are settled by the parents.
• 2. Praino System:
  • This is a form of love marriage.
  • Etymology: The term originated from the ancient word ‘pranay’, meaning love.
• 3. Gadar System:
  • This is unique due to the venue of the ceremony.
  • Process: The bride goes to the house of the bridegroom, and the wedding ceremony is observed there (contrary to the standard Hindu custom where the groom goes to the bride).

2. Rules of Union and Separation

Flexibility and Force

• Divorce: The marriage is dissolvable by mutual consent at any time.
• Forced Marriage: In some cases, the practice of marriage by force is also found among them.

3. Regional Divergence (Himachal vs. Uttarakhand)

The ‘Tekwa’ or ‘Viyag’ System

A crucial distinction exists between the Khasas of Himachal Pradesh and those of the neighboring Jaunsar Bawar region regarding the ‘Tekwa’ system.

• The System: ‘Tekwa’ or ‘Viyag’ allows a dead or incapacitated husband to be replaced by another man (a hired husband) to procreate a male child for the family.
• In Himachal Pradesh: There is NO Tekwa or Viyag system among the Khasas of HP.
• In Uttarakhand: This system was found among the Khasas of Jaunsar Bawar, Tehri, and Garhwal.

HPAS Notes: Religion of the Khasas

1. The Village God System

• Core Belief: Almost every remarkable hill is considered the abode of some spirits.
• Role of Gods: The village gods are viewed as the heads and protectors of the habitat.
• The Intermediary (‘Gur’): The ‘Gur’ (Oracles) represent the spirits and communicate on their behalf.
• Rituals:
  • Village gods are made to dance in palanquins made of wood.
  • Sacrifices of goats and rams are made to village gods and spirits.

2. Prominent Deities

The Mahasu Cult

• Status: The Mahasu cult is very prominent among the people of this community.
• The Milk Taboo (Historical): In earlier days, the worshippers of ‘Pawasi Mahasu’ did not use milk. However, there are no such restrictions now.

Other Deities Worshipped:

• Hatkoti Devi.
• Nag Deities.
• Chureshwar, Dom, Chikhreshwar, and Koteshwar.

3. The Three-Fold Worship System

Hierarchy of Worship

The Khasas established a specific system of worship that is still prevalent in Himachal today:

• 1. Ishta Devta: The deity of the individual.
• 2. Griha Devta: The deity of the household.
• 3. Gram Devta: The deity of the village.

4. Script and Language

• Past Script: The script of the community in the past was ‘Tankri’.
• Present Script: They use the Devnagari script now.

HPAS Notes: Community System of the Khasas

1. The ‘Khoond’ Warrior System

The Khasas have distinct warrior groups known as ‘Khoond’. These groups form the basis of their social organization.

Classification of Warrior Groups

• Shatha: Represents the ‘Sixty’ (i.e., the Kaurva group).
• Pasha: Represents the ‘Five’ (i.e., the Pandava group).
• Logic of Subgroups: These are further divided into groups like Chhabishi (6×20), Charbishi (4×20), Barabishi (12×20), etc..
• Purpose: The availability of warrior young men for battle was the main criterion for these subgroups. They used to supply warriors to the ‘Ranas’ on demand.
• Head Hunting: Among the ‘Khoonds’, head hunting was practiced in cases of mutual animosity.

2. Traditional Sport: ‘Thodo’

Martial Archery

• Definition: ‘Thodo’ is a martial bow and arrow game arranged in open courtyards.
• Attire: Participants wear a typical dress with high-heeled shoes and ‘suthan’ made of very coarse and rough cloth.

3. Laws of Inheritance

Jethong and Kanishong

The Khasa community follows specific customary laws for dividing ancestral property:

• General Rule: Ancestral property is divided among all sons.
• The Exception (Extra Share):
  • Jethong: The eldest brother gets an additional share of a field and the ancestral house.
  • Kanishong: In some cases, the youngest brother also gets an additional share.

4. Social Identity

• Occupation: They are by and large a pastoral and peasant community.
• Gotra: Various gotras exist, but the most common is the Kashyap gotra.

HPAS Notes: Political Structure of the Khasas

1. The ‘Mavana’ System (Rise of Strongmen)

From Strongman to Republic (Janapada)

The Khasas were democratic in nature, but their political organization evolved through a specific process of “survival of the fittest”:

• The Election: They organized themselves into families and villages and elected a ‘Mavi’ or ‘Mavana’, meaning a strong person among themselves.
• The Conflict: The stronger ‘Mavana’ would subdue the weaker one and annex his territory.
• The Result: In this process, the whole region was split into small units called Mavanas.
• Final Evolution: Later, these areas developed into tribal republics known as ‘JANAPADA’ in Sanskrit literature.

2. Social & Political Institutions

The Khasa society was structured around three key leadership roles:

• Head of the Family.
• Head of the Clan.
• Head of the Panchayat.

3. The Aryan Influence & Regional Divide

Lower Hills vs. Upper Hills

A distinct political-religious divide existed based on proximity to the Aryans:

• Lower Hills: Khasas here were closer to the Aryans. Thus, they adopted the institution of ‘Purohit’.
• Upper Regions: In these areas, the non-Brahmanical order remained much in vogue.

4. The Role of Rishis (Sages)

The Aryan conquerors who left for the plains maintained contact with the Khasas through Rishis who visited the Himalayas for peace and meditation:

• Political Influence: Being influential gurus of powerful Aryan kings, their word was respected.
• Deification: Famous Aryan Rishis were accorded the status of local gods. Examples include Vashishta, Vyasa, Jamdagni, and Parshuram.
• Modern Parallel: The text notes this is similar to the respect given to Pujaris and Sadhus today.

HPAS Notes: Culture & Economy of the Khasas

1. Cultural Influences and Distinctiveness

• The ‘Dum’ Influence: The culture of the Khasas has been deeply influenced by their contacts with the ‘Dums’.
• Origin of Dums: The cultural life of Dums resembles that of the many tribes of pre-Dravidian origin.
• Aboriginal Proximity: Their unique culture is attributed to their close proximity with the aboriginal life of the hills.

Khasas vs. Plains Hindus (Key Differences)

Although they claim themselves to be Hindus, their cultural life does not resemble the Hindus of the plains:

• Widow Remarriage: Unlike traditional plains Hindus, the Khasas remarry widows.
• Divorce: They have made divorce legal.

2. Religious Syncretism

A Mixture of Beliefs

The religion of Khasas is described as a mixture of Hindu and tribal beliefs:

• Hindu Gods: They worship standard gods like Vishnu and Shiva.
• Animistic/Tribal Worship: Besides Hindu gods, they also worship:
  • Their own deities.
  • Demons and spirits.
  • Stones and weapons.

3. Economy and Occupation

• Chief Occupation: Agriculture and Horticulture.
• Modern Change: They are now coming under the influence of modern systems and exposure, which has provided a new thrust to their outlook and lifestyle.

4. Physical Anthropology

Physical Features

The text provides a specific physical description of the Khasa people:

• Stature: Generally tall.
• Appearance: Handsome with fair complexion.
• Facial Features: Misty eyes, curly hairs, and regular well-cut features.

HPAS Notes: Minor Ancient Tribes & Modern Demographics

1. The Pishachas

• Identity: Known as consumers of raw flesh.
• Habitat: They inhabited the North frontier and the adjoining Himalayan tract.
• Vedic Connection: The tribe known as ‘Rakshas’ in Vedic times were akin to the Pishachas.

2. The Yakshas

Mythological Identity

• Tree Gods: They were known as the tree gods, endowed with mysterious super-human powers.
• Mahabharata Reference: There is a famous reference to the encounter between Yudhishthira (and his brothers) with a Yaksha.
• Geography: It is difficult to ascribe a particular region to such a type of tribe.

3. Summary of Ancient Tribal Struggle

The text provides a concluding note on the ancient struggle for power in the Himalayas:

• Shelter for All: Every part of the Himalayan tract has provided shelter to almost every kind of tribe.
• The Victor: Khasas were the only tribe to gain supremacy over the region extending from Kashmir up to Kumaon hills.

4. Modern Tribal Demographics

In modern Himachal Pradesh, the following are listed as the famous tribes:

• Gujjars, Gaddis, Kinnaurs (Kinners), Lambas, Khampas, Bhots, Jads, Lahaulas, Pangwalas, and Swanglas.

High Yield Fact: Area vs. Population

The distribution of tribes in modern Himachal shows a stark contrast between land area and population density:

• Geographical Area: Tribes occupy 40 percent of the total geographical area of the state.
• Population Share: However, they constitute only 4.6 percent of the total population of the state.

MAJOR TRIBES OF HIMACHAL PRADESH

According to the Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order, 1950 (Part V), there are 11 recognized Scheduled Tribes in Himachal Pradesh. These include:

1. Gaddi
2. Gujjar
3. Kinnaura (or Kanaura)
4. Lahaula
5. Pangwala
6. Swangla
7. Bodh / Bhot
8. Jad, Lamba, and Khampa
9. Beta (or Beda)
10. Domba, Gara, or Zoba
11. Hattee (specifically of the Trans-Giri area of Sirmaur district)

Area vs. Population

The distribution of Scheduled Tribes in Himachal Pradesh presents a significant contrast between geographical spread and demographic density:

• Geographical Area: Tribal areas cover approximately 42.49% (often rounded to 40%) of the state’s total landmass, primarily in the high-altitude districts of Lahaul-Spiti and Kinnaur.
• Population Share: Despite the vast area they occupy, these communities constitute only 5.71% of the state’s total population (per the 2011 Census).

pangwal tribe hp

Ethnographic Study: The Pangwals

Overview & Identity

• Definition: Indigenous residents of the Pangi Valley in the Chamba district.
• The Term ‘Pangwal’: Refers to all permanent residents of the valley, regardless of caste.
• Castes Included: Brahmin, Rajput, Hali, Lohar, Badi, and Chanal.
• Demographics: Rajputs constitute the maximum population. The majority is formed by Brahmins and Rajputs.

Theories of Origin

The origin of Pangwals is historically “shrouded in mystery.” There are three primary theories:

1. Migration Theory

People from Lahaul and the lower Chenab Valley migrated to Pangi due to heavy pressure on land and pastures. They were attracted by the green pastures and plentiful land of Pangi.

2. Criminals Settlement Theory

Based on the 1961 village census monograph (Kupha, Pasamo, Tamoh & Malet), it is said that because of Pangi’s difficult terrain and isolation, criminals condemned to life sentences were sent there.
Evidence: The traditional ‘Pangwali Topi’ resembles a prisoner’s cap.

3. Refugees of Mughal Empire (Most Plausible)

During the Mughal dominion, Rajput nobles fearing religious or political persecution sent their families and soldiers to Pangi for protection.
Lineage Shift: Rajput warriors who stayed behind were killed or injured. Later, Rajput women in Pangi married the servants and soldiers who had accompanied them.

Geography & Legal Status

• Terrain: Hazardous, mountainous, and isolated.
• Climate: Extreme winters, heavy snowfall, and strong icy winds. Prone to avalanches and landslides.
• Legal Status: The area is a Scheduled Area. A Resident Commissioner is appointed for governance.
• Tribal Status: Pangwals are declared as Scheduled Tribes.
• Census Data: 1911 census – 16,000 people → 2011 census – 20,693 people..
• Primary residence of Pagwals: Pangi tehsil of district Chamba. Other residence : Lahual and Kullu.

Food & Dietary Habits

Social System & Hierarchy

Brahmin Hierarchy:

1. Gaur (Highest): Collect Alms.
2. Sungria: Perform sacerdotal services (officiate at Birth and Marriage ceremonies).
3. Kalia (Lowest): Officiate only at mortuaries (birth/marriage/death). Kalia Brahmins are not SC but considered at par with other SCs.

Rajput Categories:

Divided into Ranas, Thakurs, and Rathis (Rathis are considered inferior). They claim descent from Suryavanshi and Chandravanshi lineages and Kshatriya Varna.

Key Social Rules:

• Rajputs have a lower status than Brahmins.
• Both groups are divided into exogamous units called Gotra.
• They maintain Connubal (marriage) and Commensal (eating together) relations with each other.

Language

• Local Dialect: Pangwali (No native script).
• With Outsiders: Hindi.
• Written Script: Devanagari.

Marriage System

• Marriage Structure:
  • Endogamy: Practiced at the community level (Pangwal weds Pangwal).
  • Exogamy: Practiced at the village and gotra level.
  • Prohibitions: No marriage between kin up to 7 degrees (earlier 3) on father’s side and 5 degrees (earlier 5) on mother’s side.
  • Practices: Junior Levirate and Sororate are recognized.
• Age & Type:
  • Age: Boys (22-24); Girls (18-20).
  • Monogamy: Primary form; a 2nd marriage is only allowed if the 1st wife cannot provide an heir.

Types of Marriage

Symbols:

 Bulok (Nose ring), Lal Chipper (Red shawl), Fararu (Earring), and Nasal ornaments like Laung, Phullis, and Tikki. 

Bari Shadi Process & Rituals

• Negotiation: Initiated by the boy’s side; father/uncle visits with a liquor bottle and sattu. Acceptance of gifts means agreement, then mangani takes place. For fixing the marriage date and time, the cycle repeats and boy brings bange or bangles for the girl.
• Sacrifice: A lamb is sacrificed and meat is given to all.
• Terminology: Engagement is called Pillan; Betrothal is Fekki; Marriage ceremony is Chakki.
• Rituals:
  • Puna: Sacred marking with flour at a place where the couple sits.
  • Totus: Flour cup filled with honey and ghee; the partner who finishes first has the “upper hand” in the marriage.
• Auspicious Months: Vaisakha, Asadha, Kartika, Pausa, Magh, and Phaugan.
• Officiator: Sungria Brahmin.
• Residence: Patrilocal (Gharjawai if the bride’s family has no male heirs).

Pith-chuk or Chori Marriage

• Process:The boy captures the girl with friends’ help and marriage takes place at boy’s house.
• Process: The boy can make intimate relations with the gril, getting her pregnant is not considered a shame; the boy later fathers the child.

Divorce & Remarriage

• Divorce: Term used for divorce is Chorde. Common reasons of divorce include barrenness, infidelity, and maladjustment.
• Divorce Types:
  1. By Paramour: The paramour pays Izzat (money) to the woman for release from her husband.
  2. By Husband’s Consent: The husband breaks a dry stick in two over the wife’s head in front of village elders.
• Breach of Engagement: If the girl refuses, she pays all expenses/gifts as a penalty; if the boy refuses, no gifts are returned.
• Remarriage: Allowed for widow, widower and divorcee.
• Widow Remarriage: Term used is Topi Lana. After 1 year of the husband’s death. The first right to marry belongs to the husband’s brother, nephew, or cousin who presents her with a Joji.

Birth Ceremonies & Rituals

• Impurity Period (Asudh/Jooth): 9 days for a male child; 12 days for a girl child.
• Purification: Held on the 3rd, 9th, or 12th day of birth using holy Ganga water.
• Naamsamskar (Naming ceremony): Done in the 1st, 3rd, 7th, or 9th month; the father names the child after consulting an almanac.
• Tonsure or Hair cutting ceremony:Shik-Vade
  • Held before the 1st year (postponed up to 3 years if for a Sukhna).
  • First hair is cut by the father.
  • A goat is sacrificed, and its blood is sprinkled on the child’s hair.
  • Kilta- Hair is kept in a basket and buried.
  • On the 3rd day, the father shaves the head again, leaving a Choti (cue) on the occiput.

Janeu (Sacred Thread) Ceremony

• Age: Conducted between 10–14 years.
• Source: The sacred thread is brought from Haridwar.
• Taboos for Janeu Wearers:
  • No eating of chicken or eggs.
  • No eating of food prepared by women during their menses.
  • No eating with people of other communities.
  • The Janeu must not touch the body when answering the “call of nature”.

Death Ceremony

• Disposal Methods:
  • Adults are cremated.
  • Children below 8 years are buried.
• Key Figures:
  • Kalia Brahmin: Officiates the mortuary rites.
  • Eldest Male: Performs the last rites.
  • Dwaru: A Chanal who prepares the bier (coffin) and carries fire in a pot.
• Pollution & Purification:
  • Period of Pollution: 9 days for a male death; 7 days for a female death.
  • Ritual: Male family members shave their heads on the 7th day.
  • Sacrifice: A lamb or goat is sacrificed, and blood is sprinkled on everyone for purification.
  • Ashes: Collected and immersed in the Chandra-Bhaga river.
• Memorials:
  • Kathi or Kriya: Performed in the 3rd, 9th, or 13th month after death.
  • Dhag: A stone slab placed in the courtyard in memory of the dead (usually inscribed by Gaddi shepherds).
  • Pangwals practice ancestor worship.

Status of Women

• Social Position:
  • High social position with freedom of speech and movement.
  • In charge of domestic affairs; joint family system with male heads.
  • No Purdah (veil) system.
  • Teknonymy: Husbands, wives, and in-laws use teknonymic names for each other.
• Economic Asset: Viewed as hardworking and an economic asset to the family.
• Freedom & Rights:
  • Right to leave the house of their choice.
  • Izzat or Mudda: Money paid by women to the husband upon leaving.
  • Biradari Panchayat: Senior women can participate to discuss socially relevant issues.
• Limitations:
  • Cannot worship the clan deity.
  • Cannot officiate as a priest.
  • Restrictions on cooking or religious functions during menses.
  • No representation in local or regional politics.

Religious Life

• Sects: Pangwal Brahmins belong to Vaishnava and Shaivite sects.
• Deities:
  • Worship the deities of the wider pantheon.
  • Nag & Nagin: Regional, village, and clan deities worshipped to ward off evils.
  • Goddess Durga: Regional deity worshipped by sacrificing a goat.
• Priesthood: Pujaris are hereditary Brahmins or Rajputs. They take away eatables and the left leg/liver of sacrificed animals.
• Beliefs: Strong belief in evil spirits, ghosts, magic, and amulets. Recourse is taken to a Chela (spirit healer) after affliction.

Sacred Sites

Important Jatras (Religious Journeys)

• Lwaan: Observed in Magh or Phaugan.
• Union & Sainch: Observed in Chaitra.
• Darkhan & Baria:Observed in Sharvan.
• Phool Jatra:Observed in Kartika.

Major Festivals

• Tyane: Observed in Asadh (August); associated with Sanitarian.
• Dikhrain: Observed in Savan.
• Parvach: Observed in Bhadon.
• Sheel: Observed on Amavasya of Phalgun or Chaitra.
• Hishoo: Celebrated as New Year’s Day.
• Other: Miniach, Sanitarian, Shivratri.

Major Fair

• Masan Devi Fair: Held at Purthi.

Traditional Dress

Men’s Attire

• Topi: Traditional cap.
• Kameej or Chola: Shirt.
• LeKhar: A long buttoned coat reaching knee length.
• Majhir: Black woollen cord wrapped around the waist.
• Chalar or Suthan: Woollen/cotton trousers, loose to the knees but tight below.
• Pul: Locally made shoes crafted from grass or straw.

Women’s Attire

• Kameri or Choli: Shirt/Top.
• Joji: Colorful head dress embroidered with cotton and silk threads, featuring a “tail” tucked into the hair plait.
• Chadru: Headscarf or dupatta.
• Kamarband: Waistband.
• Chalan or Suthan: Trousers.
• Grass or Straw Shoes: Similar to men’s footwear.

Inheritance & Family Authority

The laws of inheritance follow two specific systems:

• Pagvand: Male offspring share property equally.
• Chundavand: Property is first divided according to the number of wives, then divided equally among the male children of each wife.
• No Male Issue: If there are no sons, the wife enjoys the property.
• Authority: After the father’s death, family authority rests with the eldest male.

Occupation & Social Economy

• Primary Activities: Agriculture, herding of sheep/goats, and bee-keeping.
• Land Usage: Gaur Brahmins do not cultivate land themselves; they give it to others on Adhi.
• Forest & Water Rights:
  • Hak-barden: Forest rights (now restricted).
  • Collecting fuel (dry branches) and herbs like Zeera, Pateesh, Chora, and Gucchis.
  • Right to construct water mills.
• Caste-Based Occupations:
  • Chanals: Agricultural laborers, removers of dead cattle, and carriers of marriage gifts. They lead funeral processions carrying an axe.
  • Lohar & Badhi: Repair and manufacture agricultural implements. Paid during harvesting or ceremonies.

Social Purity & Taboos

• Commensal Rules: Brahmins and Rajputs accept both Kacha and Pucca food from each other.
• Inter-community Restrictions:
  • Brahmins accept Ghee, Sattu, and Sidha from Chanals and Lohars only if served in Kanse Ka Bartan (bronze utensils).
  • Brahmins will not sit on the same mat with Chanals or Lohars while eating.
  • Rota (offered food): If cooked by lower castes, Brahmins won’t touch it. However, Ghee and flour offered by them is accepted; if the priest (Pujari) prepares it, it can then be offered to the deity.
  • Water: Separate water sources exist for Lohars, Chanals, Brahmins, and Rajputs.

Modern Times & Transitions

• Economy: The Cash system has replaced the old barter system. The nearest market is at Tarala (60km away).
• Education: Functioning since 1959, though development remains slow. Literacy is helping Pangwals secure white-collar and Govt. jobs.
• Healthcare: Greater faith remains in traditional methods or Chelas, yet government hospitals or dispensaries are utilized.
• Governance: The Village Council (Biradari Panchayat) remains more predominant than district courts for local issues.

khampa tribe

Study Notes: The Khampa Community

1. Origin & Identity

• Origin: Migrated from Tibet; they are not original inhabitants of Himachal Pradesh (HP).
• Name: Related to the word ‘Kham’, which is the name of a state in Tibet.
• Arrival: Came to India about 100 years ago as itinerant traders. Moved into upper Himalayas as nomads.
• Settlement: Khampas who stayed in India are called Gyakhar or Gyagar (Tibetan term for India).
  • Settled in: Kullu, Chamba, Kinnaur, and Lahaul-Spiti.

2. Regional Classifications

Nomadic Section: Known as ‘Nekhor Khampa’.
Nekhor: ‘Ne’ (Pilgrim places) + ‘Khor’ (Journey) = People who came for pilgrimage.

3. Demographics & Social Status

• Category: Belongs to ST (Scheduled Tribe) category.
• Population & Growth:
  • 1981 Census: 1221 (Including Jads & Lambas)
  • 2001 Census: 1850 (Growth rate: 2.80%)
  • Represents 0.03% of Total Population.
• Language:
  • Dialect: Khampa.
  • Script: Traditional script is Tibetan, but currently use Devanagari.
  • Communication with outsiders: Hindi & English.
• Social Hierarchy:
  • Categorization: The term “Khampa” is a generic category encompassing various territorial groupings.
  • General Status: In the local social hierarchy, they are generally ranked on par with Rajput communities.
  • Regional Divide in Acceptance:
    • Buddhist-Dominated Areas (Spiti, Lahaul, Kinnaur): Accepted as absolute social equals due to shared religious beliefs.
    • Hindu-Dominated Areas (Kullu, Chamba, Shimla): Not regarded as social equals. Opinion among local Rajputs regarding their equality remains divided.

4. Marriage Customs

Types of Marriage

• Monogamous: Primarily practiced today.
• Fraternal Polyandry: Prevalent form in the past.
• Polygamy: Only if the first wife is unable to bear a child.

Rules & Preferences

• Practice Endogamy at both village and community levels.
• Prohibitions: Parallel or ortho-cousin marriages are prohibited. Immediate relations on both mother and father side are avoided.
• Allowed : Cross-cousin marriage; Junior Levirate (husband’s younger brother); Sororate (wife’s sister).
• Age: Age gap of 3-4 years; Marriage age is usually early twenties.

The Ceremony (Phanktun)

• Phakatum: Marriage fixer or Negotiator (also called Bachola).
• No Dowry or Bride Price.
• Procession: Bridegroom’s procession is stopped 2 times by the girl’s friends by blocking the road with stones.
• Tit mde-luh: A question-answer song sung by girls. The groom is allowed to pass only after answering correctly.
• Thodkor: White turban which the groom’s father ties on the heads of relatives.
• Desil: A sweet dish of rice and curd fed to the bride and groom.
• Priest: Lama.
• Residence: Patrilocal (bride lives with groom’s family).

5. Divorce & Remarriage

• Local Names: Jatsari-Jha-dal-va, Jha-cho-che , Khatal-je, Kheje,.
• Reasons: Adultery, barrenness, infertility, maladjustment, or maltreatment.
• Process: Initiated by either party with consent of the community council. Alimony is decided by the Panchayat.
• Custody: Infant given to mother; grown-up children usually stay with the father.
• Remarriage: Allowed for widows, widowers, and divorcees.

6. Religion & Beliefs

• Lamaistic Buddhism: Khampas believe in all four sets:
  1. Gyaluka
  2. Ningma-pa
  3. Sakya-pa
  4. Karguda-pa
• Deities:
  • Family Deity: Chhadna-Dorje (Famous Buddhist deity).
  • Other deities: Found in form of boulders (rocks), trees, caves, bushes, etc.
  • Lamas: Serve as sorcerers and sacredotal specialists.
  • Illness Puja: Consulted by Lama; involves reading of Buddhist Pragya Paramita Vajrachhedika etc.
  • Sacred Centres: Buddhist monasteries and Gompas.
  • Pilgrimage Sites: Sarnath, Kushinagar, Nepal, Bodh Gaya, Rewalsar, and Monasteries in Lahaul-Spiti and Chango.
  • Daily Ritual: every house possesses its own family diety represented by Stone or slab worshipped with smoke of Juniper leaves every day.

7. Dress & Appearance

• Chhuba: A long gown; Black for males and Brown for females.
• Banjug: Shirt.
• Siring Kingar: Cap.
• Ornaments: Both males and females wear earrings made of gold with Red & Blue beads (approx. 2 inches in diameter).
• Modern Trends: Nowadays, outfits include pants, shirts, jeans, and suits.

8. Food & Dietary Habits

• Staples: Chapatti, Rice, and Fruits (Apple, Apricot, Plums).
• Pulses: Urad, Chana, and Malka.
• Non-Veg: Meat of Goat, Sheep, Chicken, Fish, and Eggs.
• Taboos: Meat of Yak, Pork, and Beef is strictly avoided.
• Traditional Dishes: Thugpa and Momo.
• Natural Foraging:
  • Edible roots & tubers: Bhalku, Linger, Nokhi, Chain, and Grachhi (mushrooms).
  • Wild Fruits: Jami, Vami, Aarvi, and Chuli.

9. Social Rituals & Life Cycle

Birth Rituals

• Naming: The child is named by the Dalai Lama or Avtari Lama after consulting sacred texts and the almanac.
• Raldak: Tonsure (hair cutting) ceremony performed by the mother’s brother or parents before the child is two years old.

Death Rituals

• Disposal: Method decided in consultation with the Lama.
• Practices: Adults are cremated; infants are placed in a wooden box and immersed in the river.
• Impurity: Lasts for 1 day; purificatory rites are performed by the Lama.
• Periodic Rituals (After Death):
  • Chizik: 4th day.
  • Duzik: 7th day.
  • Shibchu Shekku: 49th day.
  • Logar: One year mark.
• Alms are given and prayers offered for the peace of the departed soul.

10. Social Structure & Norms

• Family Type: Extended family.
• Avoidances: Parents avoid calling daughters-in-law by name (and vice-versa). Daughters-in-law avoid the husband’s elder male relatives.
• Joking Relations: Permitted with wife’s younger sister, younger brother, and related lines.
• Addressal: Husbands and wives use Teknonymic terms (e.g., Tinku-ki-Papa or Mommy) rather than names.
• Social Units: Divided into several exogamous clans or sects denoting origin from a common ancestor.

Property Inheritance

• Inherited in the male line with all sons sharing equally.
• If no male heir exists, property is inherited by the daughter.
• If neither exists, it goes to the widow.
• Restriction: A widow has no right to sell, gift, or mortgage (Gahan) the property.

11. Fairs, Festivals & Art

• LOSAR: The Khampa New Year, celebrated on 24th or 25th February.
• Galde Gamche: Celebrated in May for devotion to the memory of Buddha.
• Fortnight Prayers: Held on Panchami (5th day) and Dashmi (10th day) of each fortnight.
• Fairs: Goetr and Ladarcha in Spiti & Kinnaur (Main participants: Khunu and Piti Khampas).

• Art & Craft:
  • Weaving: Dragon designs on carpets (Red & Black shades), done by both sexes.
  • Suktu: Woolen shawl.
  • Sukdan: Woolen bedsheet for self-use.
  • Knitting: Sweaters and pullovers with beautiful designs.
• Dance/Oral Tradition: Local songs called Yanva or Time Luh (sung at marriages); women perform traditional dances.

12. Traditional Norms & Inter-community Relations

• Food Exchange: Exchange both Kachcha & Pucca food with Brahmins & Rajputs.
• No Kachcha food accepted from other communities unless cooked by a Brahmin or Rajput status person.
• Present Status: No discrimination even amongst Sippi and Lohars. Marital ties now exist with other Rajput communities.
• Access to common water resources and Panchayat Ghars.
• Jajmani Relationships: Exist with communities like Lohar and Beta (services for grain/goods).
• Community help is rendered for construction and forming protective field walls.

13. Occupation & Economy

• Traditional: Sheep herding and wool trade in Tibet.
• Indo-Tibetan Trade: Brought Pashmina wool, sheep, goat, and yak to India; returned with carpets, moonga, etc..
• Post-Conflict Transition: Following Indo-China conflicts, nomadic life ended. Settled in HP as agriculturists and orchardists.
• Modern Business: Shopkeeping, running restaurants, and selling foreign goods (cross-border trade).
• Labor: Involved in road construction or mule taming.
• Regional Split:
  • Garja & Piti Khampas: Own land and work on fields.
  • Thawa & Khunu Khampas: Primarily involved in trade and business.

14. Traditional Council

• Name: Known as Shuzan Chungi.
• Head: Led by the GOVA.
• Composition: Consists of five old and learned persons from the community.
• Participants: Both males and females can participate.
• Functions:
  • Settles divorce and family disputes.
  • Penalizes individuals guilty of breaking traditional norms.
  • Acts as a quasi-judicial organ of Tribal India.
• Khampas Panchayats: Serve as both a law and order maintenance agency and a developmental agency.

15. Role of Women

• Social Position: High status; women are in-charge of the house and manage/control family affairs.
• Decision Making: Formal authority remains with men, but vital decisions are taken after consulting with the wife.
• Representation: Now represented in statutory panchayats (historically, they were not allowed to hold posts in the council).
• Economic Contribution:
  • Enterprising; carry on independent economic activities like running hotels, shops, and foreign goods dealing.
  • Shops and restaurants are often manned by women while men assist by procuring goods.
  • In Gharja and Piti Khampa groups, women assist in all agricultural activities except ploughing.
• Youth: Children below 15 years of age help parents in fields, household work, and business.

16. Contemporary Situation

• Inter-community Relations: Khampas maintain a symbiotic relationship with others.
• Education & Employment: Well-educated community; many have entered professional and government office jobs.
• Social Development: Modern Khampas are at par with the people of lower Himachal Pradesh in terms of social development and political awakening.
• Family Planning: Maintain a highly positive attitude with no prejudice against family planning programmes.

gaddi

HPAS Notes: The Gaddis (Origins & Geography)

1. Identity and Composition

• Generic Term: The word ‘Gaddi’ is a generic name.
• Caste Inclusion: Under this term, the following groups are included:
  • Brahmins.
  • Rajputs.
  • Khatris.
  • Thakurs.
  • Rathis.

2. Geography: ‘Gadhern’

The Land of the Gaddis

• Primary Habitat: Inhabited in the Bharmaur tehsil of Chamba district and parts of Kangra district.
• Other Areas: Some are also found in Nurpur tehsil.
• Local Terminology:
  • The entire area where Gaddis inhabit is called ‘Gadhern’ or the ‘Gadiyar region’.
  • Bharmaur is described as Kailash (the abode of Shiva).

3. Etymology: Origin of the Word ‘Gaddi’

The Four Theories

1. The Shepherd Theory: Derived from the Hindi term “Gaddar”, meaning a shepherd or an ewe.
2. The Pasture Theory: Derived from ‘Gahar’, which is an alpine pasture grazed in autumn.
3. The Religious Theory (Shiva’s Seat):
   • Derived from ‘Gaddi’ connoting a seat or throne.
   • Logic: Kailash is the throne of Lord Shiva. Those who entered this “Gaddi” (seat) of Lord Shiva came to be known as Gaddis.
   • Key Deity: Lord Shiva is the principal God of Gaddis.
4. The Sanskrit Theory (Most Agreed):
   • Derived from “Gadar”, a Sanskrit word for sheep.
   • Evolution: From ‘Gadar’ evolved ‘Gaddi’. Consequently, the word “Gadhern” or “Gadaren” means sheep country.

4. Historical Origin (Migration)

Flight from Persecution

• Reason: They came to these hilly areas when they fell victim to the atrocities of Mohammedans during their despotic rule.
• Settlement: Seeking safety, they settled in Bharmaur, which they revere as Kailash.

HPAS Notes: The Gaddis (Origins & Migration)

1. Migration Theories by Caste

There is no unanimity on the exact origin, but different castes within the Gaddi tribe have specific traditions regarding their migration:

Brahmin & Rajput Tradition (The Delhi Link)

• Origin: Gaddi Brahmins believe their ancestors migrated from Delhi to Bharmaur.
• Time Period: This migration occurred during the reign of Raja Ajia Varman (780-800 A.D.).
• Rajputs: Many Gaddi Rajputs share this tradition and are considered descendants of invaders from the plains.

Khatri Tradition (The Lahore Link)

• Origin: Gaddi Khatris state that their ancestors fled from Lahore.
• Reason: To escape persecution, likely during the early Mohammedan invasions.

2. The Historical Evidence (Couplet)

High Yield Quote

“UJRYA LAHORE TE VASYA BHARMAURE”

(Translation: The ransack of the city of Lahore resulted in the influx to Bharmaur)

This popular couplet strongly supports the theory of migration from Lahore due to invasions.

3. Reasons and Timeline

Why Bharmaur?

• Safety: The main reason for choosing this area was its inaccessibility. The fear of invaders was much less in these remote hills.
• Kangra Gaddis: The Gaddis currently found in Kangra district have migrated there from Chamba district (secondary migration).
• Timeline Uncertainty: The exact date is not definite. Opinions range widely from the 8th century to the 16th century, or it may have been a process spread over centuries.

HPAS Notes: The Gaddi Tribe (Society & Character)

1. Identity & Character Traits

The “Friends” of the Hills

• Local Nomenclature: The local people affectionately call the Gaddis ‘Mitra’, which means ‘friends’.
• Character of Youth: The boys are known to be very strong in character, while the girls are described as bashful.
• Chastity: The chastity among Gaddi girls is considered to be higher than any other tribe of the Himalayas.

2. Physical Attributes & Resilience (High Yield)

The Imperial Gazette Observation

• Stature: Gaddis are generally short-statured when compared to the people of the plains.
• Built for Survival: Despite their height, they are incredibly healthy, stout, and ready to face the severe challenges of nature.
• The Official Record: The ‘Imperial Gazette of India’ wisely attributed their physical resilience to the “influence of vigorous climate in killing of all but vigorous individuals”.

3. Lifestyle and Social Values

Simplicity and Justice

• Work Ethic & Lifestyle: They are a very hard-working class who lead a simple life, generally unmindful of happenings around the globe.
• Hospitality: Gaddis are highly hospitable; a guest is always taken in high spirits.
• Religious Tolerance: Being highly religious-minded, they are careful not to hurt the feelings of other people.
• Cultural Pride: They remain very firm in their faiths and beliefs; even the educated members of the tribe do not forget their core values and feel proud to be called Gaddis.
• Dispute Resolution: Litigation is much less in this community. They generally fear the courts and prefer to settle their disputes amicably amongst themselves.
• Elderly Respect: Due respect is strictly paid to old persons within both the family and the broader society.

HPAS Notes: The Gaddi Tribe (Conservatism & Language)

1. Cultural Preservation & Conservatism

Resisting Outside Influence

• Attitude Towards Change: Gaddis are very conservative, stubborn, and decry modulation (change).
• Persuasion: They are “unsolicitors” and it is notably difficult to convince them to adopt “better” modern changes.
• Core Nature: Though they are magnanimous and commiserative by nature, their primary goal is to keep their culture un-eroded.
• The Pastoral Ideal: With few needs and simple habits, they lead an unsophisticated, happy, and contented life, described as being “far away from the madding crowd”.

2. Marriage & Matrimony

Strict Endogamy

• Community Isolation: When it comes to marriage, matrimonial relations with other people of their habitat are conspicuous by their absence.
• This strict adherence ensures their unique cultural and social identity remains completely intact from outside influence.

3. Linguistic Profile (High Yield for Prelims)

Dialect and Script Facts

• The Dialect: The dialect used by Gaddis belongs to the ‘Western Pahari’ language.
• Language Family: This falls under the Sanskrit Aryan families of the Northern group.
• Usage Dynamics:
  • They use their own dialect strictly among themselves.
  • While talking to other people, they switch to the broader Pahari dialect.
  • They can understand Hindi well, but it is normally not spoken by them.
• The Script Trap: Beware of trick questions! There is no script for the Gaddi dialect.

HPAS Notes: The Gaddi Tribe (Family & Economy)

1. Family Structure & Patriarchy

Authority and Inheritance

• System Shift: The joint family system is not very common among the Gaddis; with the passage of time, the institution of the joint family is breaking up slowly and gradually.
• Patriarchal Authority: Being a deeply patriarchal tribe, the man is the sole decision-making body (except in exceptional cases where others are consulted) and is the owner of the property.
• Succession: In the case of the father’s death within a joint family, the eldest son becomes the head of the family.
• Inheritance: The property is strictly distributed among all children equally.
• Roles of Dependents: Women play the traditional role played by Indian women, while children support their parents in day-to-day pursuits alongside their studies.

2. Traditional Occupations

The Pastoral Economy

• Primary Occupation: Sheep and goat rearing was adopted by the Gaddis as their primary traditional occupation.
• Secondary Occupation: Over time, cultivation was also adopted by many Gaddis to supplement their sheep rearing.

3. Drivers of Out-Migration (High Yield)

Why leave Bharmaur?

Recently, many Gaddis have started migrating away from their traditional Bharmaur areas to the lower hills and valleys. This is driven by four primary push factors:

1. Ecological: A severe shortage of fodder for their flocks.
2. Climatic: The highly uncongenial (harsh and unforgiving) climate in the high-altitude Bharmaur region.
3. Agricultural: Inadequate arable land available for cultivation.
4. Economic: A lack of broader employment opportunities in the Bharmaur area.

HPAS Notes: The Gaddi Tribe (Religion & Shiva)

1. Religious Identity

Faith and Affiliation

• Principal Religion: The religion of the Gaddis is ‘HINDUISM’.
• Sect: They are ‘Shaiv’ (followers of Lord Shiva).
• Pervasiveness: Mentions of ‘Shiva’ are found throughout all their religious practices and ceremonies.

2. Lord Shiva: The Principal Deity

The Center of the Gaddi Universe

• Supreme Status: Lord Shiva is regarded as the principal God of the Gaddi tribe.
• Spiritual Connection: Their entire way of life is centered around the worship and blessings of Shiva.

3. Spiritual Beliefs & Powers (High Yield)

Blessings of Shiva

The Gaddis possess a deep-rooted belief that the blessings of Lord Shiva can act as a panacea for various life crises. They believe Shiva can remove or cast away:

• Mental illness
• Ailments (physical diseases)
• Misfortunes
• Natural calamities
• Ancestral punishments

HPAS Notes: The Gaddi Pantheon (Deities & Spirits)

1. Beyond Shiva: Key Gaddi Deities

The Children of Shiva

While Lord Shiva is the principal God, Gaddis consider themselves his children and believe in a diverse range of other powerful deities.

2. Belief in Spirits and Invisible Beings

Benevolent and Malevolent Spirits

The Gaddi spiritual world is populated by invisible beings that must be propitiated before any major undertaking or in times of hardship.

• General Categories: Belief extends to Rakshash, Yaksha, Jogini, Birs, Sidhs, and Khetarpal.
• Baital (or Bataloo): Specifically regarded as the spirit of rivers and springs.
• Ritual Importance: These spirits are regarded as spiritual and invisible beings that influence daily life and must be appeased to ensure success or relief from difficulty.

HPAS Notes: Gaddi Tribe (Life Cycle & Rituals)

1. Worship of Satis and Superstitions

Dheradies and Traditional Beliefs

• Sati Worship: Gaddis maintain a strong belief in ‘Sati’ worship.
• Dheradies: Small temples dedicated to Satis, known as Dheradies, are found in large numbers across the Kangra and Chamba districts.
• Devotion: Both males and females worship at these shrines throughout the year with great regard and seriousness.
• Traditionalism: They cling deeply to traditional superstitions, whether good or bad, in their daily lives.

2. Gender Perspectives and Birth

The Value of a Male Child

• Necessity of Sons: Within Gaddi society, the birth of a male child is considered a necessity.
• View on Girls: Girls are often regarded as the “property of some other house” because they migrate to their husband’s home after marriage.

3. Death Rituals & The Leprosy Exception (High Yield)

Cremation vs. Burial

While their practices largely align with broader Hindu traditions, there is one significant and specific exception regarding disease.

• General Rule: Like other Hindus, Gaddis generally cremate their dead, viewing death as the ultimate will of Lord Shiva.
• The Leper Exception: A person suffering from leprosy (the leper) is never cremated.
• The Burial: Leprosy patients are buried instead of cremated.
• The Reasoning: There is a deep-rooted traditional belief that the cremation of a leper would spread the disease further and bring a great calamity upon the community.

gaddi marriages

HPAS Notes: Gaddi Marriage Systems

Overview of Matrimony

• Cultural Importance: Marriage is mandatory among Gaddis and is celebrated with great enthusiasm.
• Nature of Ceremonies: Pre-marriage and marriage rituals are described as elaborate, peculiar, and fascinating.
• Prevalence: There are five distinct types of marriages prevalent in the Gaddi community.

1. Elopement Marriage

Aliases: Jhind Phunk or Brar Phuk

This system is used when a couple decides to marry without the formal consent of their parents.

• The Ritual: The marriage is solemnized by burning bush wood.
• The Procession: The couple goes round the fire eight times, hand in hand.
• Symbolic Union: Alternatively, the union is marked with the bride’s sheet tied to the boy’s girdle.
• Absence of Formalism: No other standard religious rituals are performed during this ceremony.
• Social Status: Although it is a recognized form of marriage, it is not considered a healthy practice within the community.

HPAS Notes: Gaddi Marriage Systems

2. Jhanjrara Marriage

Process and Social Ceremony

This system involves elements of elopement but is grounded in consent and mutual understanding among relatives.

• The Initiation: Typically occurs when a woman elopes with another man; the new husband then fixes a date and time for the ‘Jhanjrara’.
• The Gathering: Neighbors and relatives are formally invited to witness the occasion.
• The Ritual: The ceremony takes place during the night, and a celebratory feast is provided to the guests.

Compensation and Legal Status

• Former Husband’s Rights: If the former husband files a suit against the new husband, the latter must pay due compensation.
• Arbitration: This compensation is settled either through a local court or the ‘biradari panchayat’.
• Official Recognition: Civil courts in India have officially recognized the validity of Jhanjrara marriages.

Widow Remarriage Rights

The system is also used to provide social and financial security to widows.

• Levirate Marriage: A Jhanjrara between a war widow and the unmarried younger brother of her deceased husband is performed without any social complications.
• Financial Security: In such cases, the war widow remains entitled to her pension and all other government-sanctioned concessions.

HPAS Notes: Gaddi Marriage Systems

3. Ghar Jawantri Marriage

Marriage by Service

This system requires the prospective groom to provide manual labor in lieu of or as a prerequisite for marriage.

• The Requirement: The boy has to work as a domestic servant specifically in the house of his would-be father-in-law.
• Strict Limitation: He is never made to work for any of the bride’s other relatives.
• Compulsory Duration: The duration of this service is compulsory and typically ranges between 2 to 8 years.
• The Wedding: The actual marriage ceremony takes place only after the boy has retired from the service of the girl’s parents.
• Residence: Once married, the couple moves to and stays at the boy’s house.

Modern Relevance

• Rarity: This type of marriage is now considered very rare.
• Declining Practice: It has largely lost its relevance and is no longer a standard practice among the Gaddis.

HPAS Notes: Gaddi Marriage Systems (Final)

4. Batta-Satta (Marriage by Exchange)

System of Reciprocity

• The Exchange: A boy obtains a bride in exchange for his own real sister or a cousin.
• Social Status: This type of marriage is considered inferior to the ‘Dan Pun’ system.

5. Dan Pun Marriage (The Gold Standard)

The Most Common & Prestigious Form

This is regarded as the most common and socially acceptable type of marriage among the Gaddis.

• Etymology: The word ‘Dan’ stands for Charity, while ‘Pun’ stands for Punya (merit).
• Ritual Focus: The ceremony of Kanyadan takes place, where the girl is given as a ‘Dan’ to her husband.
• Sanctions: Unlike elopement styles, this form carries all social, religious, and administrative sanctions.

6. Social Rules & Taboos (High Yield)

Caste and Monogamy Laws

• Endogamy: A man must marry within his own caste.
• Exogamy: Marriage is strictly forbidden with a person of the same sub-caste or the same Gotar (Gotra).
• Caste Distinctions: Distinctions between “clean” and “unclean” castes are enforced very strictly.
• Monogamy: Gaddis are essentially monogamous. Polyandry is never practiced.
• Limited Polygamy: Polygamy is only permitted if the first wife is dead or barren; in these cases, it is permitted to the entire community.
• No Bigamy/Simultaneous Unions: The practice of having two wives or two husbands at the same time is never heard of; the tribe is not bigamous.

Gaddi Society: Dowry & Marital Customs

1. The Dowry System

Voluntary Traditions

• Prevalence: The dowry system is prevalent among the Gaddis.
• Non-Coercion: Crucially, dowry is never demanded and is never insisted upon.
• Givers and Receivers: The bride’s father provides the dowry. The bridegroom’s father receives it with a sense of great respect and satisfaction.

2. Marital Dissolution (High Yield)

Concept of “Talaq”

Interestingly, the formal word for divorce (Talaq) does not exist in the history of the Gaddi tribe. Instead, they use specific descriptive terms for various types of separation:

• Dua Ghar Kari leva ha: Refers to a woman who has settled down with a second husband.
• Chhari ditti he: A situation where the husband has permitted his wife to settle down with someone else.
• Fargati di dethi ha: Occurs when the husband allows his wife to remarry according to a specific agreement.
• Resolution: Such cases of separation and remarriage are generally decided by the Birdadari Panchayats, which are duly constituted within the community.

3. Social Laws & Taboos

Caste and Marriage Restrictions

• Caste Endogamy: A man is required to marry within his own caste.
• Sub-caste Exogamy: It is positively forbidden to intermarry within the same Gotar (Gotra) or sub-caste.
• Caste Distinctions: Distinctions between “clean” and “unclean” castes are strictly enforced within the tribe.
• Monogamy: Gaddis are monogamous by nature. Polyandry is never practiced.
• Conditional Polygamy: Polygamy is only permitted for the entire community if the wife is barren or deceased.
• Anti-Bigamy: The practice of having two wives or two husbands simultaneously is unheard of; the tribe is not bigamous.

Gaddi Tribe: Festivals & Social Dynamics

1. Fairs and Festivals (High Yield List)

Annual Calendar

The festivals celebrated by the Gaddis are common with other inhabitants of the Kangra and Chamba districts.

2. Social Hierarchy & Caste

Patriarchy and Purity

• Patrilineal Descent: As the Gaddis are a patriarchal society, the caste of the child is determined by the caste of the father.
• Untouchability: The practice of untouchability is not very severe among the different Gaddi castes.
• Social Barriers: While some castes are regarded as low, the primary barrier is specifically related to entering the houses of Brahmin, Rajput, and Khatri Gaddis.

3. Role of Music

Folk Songs & Identity

• Generational Survival: Singing holds a vital place in Gaddi social life; their folk songs have survived through generations.
• Themes: These simple and primitive utterances depict their habits, customs, traditions, beauty, simplicity, humor, pathos, passions, love, culture, and religion.

Gaddi Tribe: Traditional Attire & Ornaments

1. The Iconic Chola and Dora

Distinctive Identity

• Appearance: The traditional dress is so unique that Gaddis are easily distinguishable from other people in their habitat.
• Core Components: The ‘Chola’ (a loose woolen robe) and ‘Dora’ (a woolen waist cord) are the most popular traditional garments.
• Usage: Worn by a vast section of the community on most festivals and occasions.
• Modern Shifts: Some Gaddis engaged in agriculture have started wearing Kurta and Pyjamas like other local people.

The Importance of the ‘Dora’

The Dora is considered the most important part of the dress for men, women, and children.

2. Headgear, Footwear, and Adornment

Gaddi Lifestyle: Diet & Socio-Economic Status

1. Dietary Habits & Meals

Daily Consumption

• Frequency: Gaddis traditionally take their food four times a day.
• Beverages: Tea has become very common among them.
• Local Liquors: They are fond of drinking local liquors known as ‘Sur’ or ‘Jhol’, though they are often unwilling to talk about this habit openly.

2. Personal Habits & Adornment

• Hygiene: Gaddis are not very particular about bathing, sometimes taking a bath only once or twice a month. However, they are careful about washing their faces.
• Ornaments: Gaddi women have a strong preference for ornaments, with silver jewelry being much more common than gold.

3. Socio-Economic Classification (High Yield)

A Multi-Faceted Tribe

The Gaddi tribal group primarily inhabits the Bharmaur and Kangra-Palampur belt of Himachal Pradesh. They are officially classified as a:

• Semi-nomadic tribe
• Semi-pastoral tribe
• Semi-agricultural tribe

swangla

HPAS Notes: The Swangla Tribe

1. Identity and Composition

• Classification: The Swangla is a Scheduled Tribe exclusively living in the Lahaul-Spiti district.
• Social Structure: ‘Swangla’ is a generic term which includes both Brahmins and Rajputs.

2. Geography and Habitat

The Pattan Valley

Their habitation is geographically distinct:

• Location: They live exclusively in the Pattan valley tract.
• River Bank: Their settlements are along the banks of the Chandra Bhaga (Chenab) river.
• Terrain: They occupy the remote and inaccessible tract of this valley.

3. Theories of Origin

Different versions have been given about the origin of the Swanglas. The three main theories are:

Theory 1: The Taimur Invasion (Mongol Link)

• Event: When Taimur invaded this part of the country, he drove the Buddhists out and occupied the territory.
• Etymology: The people came to be known as ‘Swangla’ from ‘Swanl’, which was the earlier name of the area.

Theory 2: Migration from Chamba

• Origin: This version says they were mostly immigrants from Chamba.
• Evidence:
  • They display Mediterranean features.
  • Geographical Logic: This conjecture is justified as Chamba is the adjacent district to Lahaul-Spiti.

Theory 3: Migration from Kinnaur

• Origin: According to this theory, they originally migrated from the Sangla valley in Kinnaur.
• Reason: They fled because the region was subjected to Tibetan subjugation.

HPAS Notes: Languages & Dialects of the Swanglas

1. Primary Languages (Social Stratification)

The language spoken in the valley is divided based on social groups:

Manchhad vs. Chinali

• 1. Manchhad:
  • Composition: It is a mixture of Tibetan and Hindi.
  • Speakers: Spoken by the Brahmins, Rajputs, and Swanglas (High Castes).
• 2. Chinali:
  • Speakers: Spoken by the Sipi and the Lohar (Artisan/Lower Castes).

2. Other Regional Dialects

• Bhoti: This is also prevalent but is only spoken by the Bodh (Buddhist) inhabitants of the valley.
• Tinan (or Tinent): A distinct dialect spoken specifically in the Sissu area.

3. Linguistic History & Origins

The Munda Connection

Linguistic research provides a window into the ancient history of the region:

• Aboriginal Link: In the earliest times, the area was inhabited by an aboriginal tribe.
• Similarity: In language and perhaps habits, they resembled the Munda-speaking tribes of Bengal, Bihar, and Central India.

4. Modern Communication

• Lingua Franca: Hindi serves as the link language with outsiders.
• Literacy Impact: With the spread of education, English and Hindi are commonly used by the literate population.

HPAS Notes: Social Life of Swanglas (Diet & Habits)

1. Staple Diet

The staple food of the Swangla consists of:

• Grains & Pulses: Wheat, beans, chapatti, rongi, and pulses of masur.
• Rice: It is taken, but not frequently.
• Vegetables: Edible roots and tubers locally available in jungles or grown in kitchen gardens (especially Potato) are consumed.

Traditional Specialities

• ‘Chilra’: A millet baked bread which is commonly taken.
• Salted Tea: Salted buttered tea is very popular and is often taken at regular intervals.

2. Non-Vegetarian Habits

• General Habit: The Swanglas are basically non-vegetarian.
• Meat Sources: Sheep, goat, chicken, and wild animals.
• Gender Norms: The women cook and eat meat.
• Seasonal Variation: The intake of non-vegetarian food increases in winters, occurring nearly every day.

3. The “Milk Constraint” (Geographical Adaptation)

Why is pure milk rare?

Due to the specific geographical conditions (“Arctic climate”), fruits and fresh produce are not easily available. This impacts dairy consumption patterns:

• Infants: Milk in its pure form is taken by infants only.
• Elders: Elders take milk only in tea or as by-products like curd.

4. Alcohol and Social Habits

Local Drinks & Smoking

• ‘Chhang’: The local drink consumed almost daily by men.
• Women: Swangla women also take alcoholic drinks, but only occasionally.
• Production: Usually distilled at home, with excess distillation taking place during social functions (birth, marriage, fairs).
• Smoking: Men smoke bidi and hubble bubble, locally known as ‘Hukka’ and ‘Jhajri’.

HPAS Notes: Social Customs & Hierarchy of Swanglas

1. The Definition of ‘Swangla’

The term ‘Swangla’ is not just a tribal name but a specific social marker in the Pattan valley:

• Generic Term: It is used as a generic term for Brahmin, Rajput, and Rana living in the Pattan valley.
• The Excluded Groups: Other communities like Rathi, Hali, Lohar, Sipi, and Chanal live in the valley but are not yet included in the term Swangla.

2. Social Hierarchy

The Order of Precedence

The Swangla society has a distinct peculiar social hierarchical order:

• 1. Brahmins (Top): They occupy the top position. They are said to have come from Chamba to serve as official and family priests for Ranas and Thakurs. They are also called ‘Pandit’.
• 2. Thakur & Rana: They follow the Brahmins in the social order.
• 3. Lower Strata: The artisans and other groups mentioned above.

3. Unique Mixed-Heritage Groups

‘Garu’ and ‘Mundro’

Besides the standard castes, there are two specific groups believed to have emerged from inter-marriage:

• Origin: They are believed to have come up as a result of a Rajput marrying a Bodh girl.
• Status: The Bodh girl is socially considered to belong to the lower strata.

HPAS Notes: Marriage System of the Swanglas

1. General Rules of Alliance

• Endogamy: Swanglas are endogamous, meaning everyone marries within their own respective classes.
• Outcasting: Marriage outside one’s own social order is not recognized, and such persons are declared outcaste (losing their original Swangla status).
• Prohibitions: Marriage is strictly prohibited with:
  • Father’s sister’s daughter.
  • Mother’s sister’s daughter.
  • Mother’s brother’s daughter.
• Degrees of Relationship: Marriage is prohibited within three degrees of relationship on both the father’s and mother’s side.

2. Distinct Forms of Marriage

Besides the standard arranged marriage, the Swanglas practice unique forms:

Terminology (Exam Key)

• ‘Rusa-te-byali’ (Elopement): This exists where the boy and girl fall in love with each other.
• ‘Kua-byah’ (Marriage by Capture): Practiced when the boy likes a girl but the parents/husband are unwilling. The boy, with the help of friends, picks up the girl forcibly.
• ‘Mazmi byah’ (Ad hoc Marriage): A unique formal marriage for those with poor economic resources. If the boy cannot bear the expenditure, he sends his sister to bring the girl, and they start living together. The actual ceremony is performed later when he can afford it.

3. The Institution of Polyandry

The “Rule of Three”

Swanglas practice fraternal polyandry, but with a specific modification regarding the number of brothers:

• The Limit: One wife can be shared by not more than three brothers.
• The Fourth Brother: If the number of brothers is more than three, the subsequent brothers (e.g., the fourth) will get another wife for themselves.
• Current Trend: With the spread of education, polyandry is giving way to monogamy.

4. Rituals and Customs

Ceremonies & Traditions

• Venue: Marriage rituals are performed at the bride’s place.
• The Procession (Polyandrous): All brothers dress in ceremonial attire and proceed to the bride’s house. However, except for the elder brother, all other brothers return from midway.
• The Tilak: The bride’s elder brother applies a mark (Tilak) on the forehead of the bride and groom.
• ‘Chheti’: The custom of giving money to the bride was prevalent in the past but is now neither demanded nor paid.
• Residence: Usually patrilocal, but recently there is a tendency for neo-local residence (setting up a new home).

HPAS Notes: Birth Customs & Rites of Passage (Swanglas)

1. Birth and Infancy

• Son Preference: A son is preferred to a daughter, especially if it happens to be the birth of the first child.
• Pre-natal Restrictions: The expectant mother is given enough rest and is not allowed to go in the open during ‘solar’ and ‘lunar’ eclipses.
• Post-natal Pollution: Observance of pollution is reported for 20 days after birth.

2. Key Life Cycle Rituals

High Yield Terminology (Match the Following)

• ‘Chhati’:
  • Equivalent: Annaprashana (First Feeding).
  • Timing: Observed six months after birth.
  • Ritual: Child is fed with cereal food for the first time.
• ‘Kratricti’ or ‘Kramog’:
  • Equivalent: Tonsure (Head Shaving) ceremony.
  • Timing: Observed on completion of one year.
  • Performer: Usually performed by either the mother’s brother (Maternal Uncle) or mother’s father.

3. Puberty Rites for Females

The ‘Nanched’ Ceremony

Specific rites are observed for females upon the onset of puberty (menses):

• Name: ‘Nanched’.
• Seclusion: She is secluded for five days and is not allowed to come near the hearth (kitchen fire).
• Purification: On the last day, the house is cleaned, the girl is given a bath, and only then is she allowed to enter the kitchen and perform religious rites.

HPAS Notes: Divorce Customs & Remarriage (Swanglas)

1. Divorce Terminology & Origins

‘Tsud-thvagchi’

• Local Name: Divorce is known as ‘Tsud-thvagchi’.
• Etymology: This term is a distorted form of the Bhoti word ‘Thagchod-pa’.
• Social Status: The society approves of divorce.

2. The Ritual of Separation

The Thread Ceremony

The divorce process involves a symbolic physical ritual:

• The Act: The couple holds a thin thread that symbolizes the matrimonial bond.
• The Break: They break the thread to signify the breaking of matrimonial bonds.

3. Grounds and Compensation (‘Izzat’)

• Common Grounds: Strained relations, change of religion by either spouse, and mutual consent.
• Rights: Both husband and wife have equal rights to seek divorce.
• The Concept of ‘Izzat’:
  • If the cause of divorce is the infidelity of the wife, her paramour (new lover) must pay ‘izzat’ money to her earlier husband.
  • The bride’s price in the event of divorce is technically known as ‘izzat’.

4. Custody and Remarriage Rules

Life After Separation

• Child Custody:
  • Primary Right: Rests with the father.
  • Exception: If the child is very young, they may stay with the mother.
• Remarriage: There is no prohibition on the marriage of a divorcee, widow, or widower.

HPAS Notes: Role of Women in Swangla Society

1. Overview of Status

• Importance: The woman in Swangla society has to play a very important and varied variety of roles.
• Religious Participation: Women participate in all socio-religious activities alongside men.

2. Economic Contribution (Hard Labor)

Agricultural Dominance

Women are the backbone of the Swangla agrarian economy, performing physically demanding tasks:

• Field Work: She carries out all economic activities in the agricultural fields.
• Ploughing: Notably, she even ploughs the fields (a task often restricted to men in other cultures).
• Crop Management: She weeds and harvests the crop.
• Fodder Management: She collects fodder not only for immediate use but also stacks it for use in winters.

3. Family Structure and Evolution

From Polyandry to Nuclear Families

• Historical Context: Polyandrous families existed primarily to prevent the fragmentation of land.
• Modern Shift: With the spread of education and diversified fields of employment, nuclear families are becoming an increasing phenomenon.

HPAS Notes: Death Customs & Inheritance Laws (Swanglas)

1. Death Rites and Mourning

• Method: The dead are cremated, with rites performed by the eldest male member of the house.
• Disposal: The bones and ashes are immersed in the river.
• Pollution Period: A period of pollution is observed for 13 days, followed by purification rites.

The Widow’s Ritual (Unique Custom)

A very specific custom marks the main days of mourning for a widow:

• The Act: A widow puts on the deceased husband’s clothes.
• Duration: This is done for eight days, which are considered the main days of mourning.

2. Laws of Inheritance

The Law of ‘Pagwand’

• Lineage: Property is inherited in the male line.
• Division Rule: All sons inherit the father’s property equally. This custom is technically known as ‘Pagwand’.

3. Rights of Women and Stepsons

• Widow’s Rights: If a person dies issueless (without children), his wife inherits the property for her lifetime.
• Daughter’s Rights:
  • In the absence of a widow or male issue, the property is inherited by the daughters.
  • Collateral Rule: If the daughter does not want to come back to her parents, the property passes on to the next collateral.
• Stepson’s Rights: A stepson succeeds his natural father but has no right to succeed his stepfather.

4. Succession of Authority

• Head of Family: The eldest son succeeds his father as the head of the family.
• Decision Making: After the death of the father, he takes all important decisions in family affairs.

HPAS Notes: Community Council (Political System)

1. Structure and Leadership

The ‘Sehna’ System

For maintaining social order and norms, the Swanglas rely on a traditional council with a specific structure:

• The Chief: The council is headed by a chief known as ‘Sehna’.
• The Council: He is assisted by four other members chosen by a voice vote.
• Selection Criteria:
  • The office is not hereditary.
  • Only a judicious and socially capable person is appointed to the post.

2. Jurisdiction and Powers

• Scope of Cases: The council adjudicates cases related to:
  • Divorce.
  • Petty quarrels.
  • Thefts.
  • Breach of community rules.
• Punishment: Fines in cash or kind are levied on the offender.
• Utilization of Funds: The collected money is utilized towards defraying the expenditure on the panchayat.

3. Traditional vs. Modern Systems

The Relevance of Tradition

Despite the introduction of modern governance, the traditional system holds sway:

• Binding Nature: The decision of the traditional council is final and binding on all.
• Preference: Although statutory panchayats have come up after independence for village upliftment, for Swanglas, their own traditional council is much more important.

HPAS Notes: Religious Beliefs of the Swanglas

1. The Dual Faith System

The Swangla community exhibits a coexistence of two major faiths:

• Hinduism: Most of the Swanglas are professing Hinduism.
• Buddhism: Some of them have converted to Buddhism. Those professing the Buddhist faith belong specifically to the ‘Gelugpa sect’.

2. Hindu Practices: Ancestors and Spirits

The ‘Man’ (Ancestor Worship)

• Belief: They propitiate their dead ancestors as their family deities.
• Purpose: Their blessings are invoked on all family festivals for the well-being of the members.
• The Sacred Room: A separate room called ‘man’ is kept exclusively for worshipping ancestors.

Other Beliefs:

• Village God: They have a village god, represented by ‘Nag Deota’ or ‘Devta’ (Serpent deity).
• Superstitions: The Brahmin Swanglas also believe in ghosts and evil spirits.

3. Important Sacred Centres

Key Pilgrimage Sites

• Local Temples: The two famous temples of the Swanglas are Trilokinath and Markula (Marikula) at Udaipur.
• Main Sacred Centre: Their main sacred centre is Manimahesh in Bharmaur tehsil of Chamba district. (Note: This reinforces the theory of their migration from Chamba).

4. Buddhist Practices & Syncretism

The Blending of Rituals

The distinction between the two faiths is often blurred in practice:

• Overlap: Buddhists observe both Hindu and Buddhist rituals.
• The Difference: The only major difference is that a ‘Lama’ officiates in place of the ‘Pandit’.
• Sacrifice Ban: According to Buddhist doctrine, none can make a sacrifice of animals to please any Buddhist deity.

HPAS Notes: Fairs and Festivals of the Swanglas

1. The Major Annual Fair

The Trilokinath Fair

The most significant cultural gathering for the Swangla community is centered around their revered temple:

• Event Name: Trilokinath Fair.
• Timing: Celebrated annually in the month of August-September.
• Significance: It serves as a major socio-religious congregation for the entire valley.

2. General Festivals (Pan-Indian Influence)

Adoption of Hindu Festivals

Besides their local fair, the Swanglas observe festivals that are common across North India, indicating their strong link to the Hindu fold:

• Shivratri.
• Holi.
• Ramnavami.
• Navratras.
• Diwali.
• Janmashtami.
• Dushehra.

Significance: All these festivals hold a deep socio-religious significance for the community.

3. Traditional Dress Code

• Uniformity: The Swanglas do not have a separate ceremonial dress for these festivals; they wear the same dress as others do in the valley.

HPAS Notes: Economic Structure & Occupations (Swanglas)

1. Agriculture: The Primary Resource

• Land Holding: The chief economic resources are land and agriculture, with land being jointly held by the family.
• Self-Sufficiency Issue: The cereal crop produce is barely sufficient for self-consumption.

The Shift to Cash Crops

A significant economic transition has occurred in the Pattan valley:

• New Focus: Instead of devoting land to cereal crops, the Swanglas now devote it to the production of cash crops.
• Major Crops: The two dominant cash crops are Potato and Hops.
• Market Reach: These crops are widely grown and find a market outside the valley.

2. Trade and Commerce Mechanisms

The Cooperative Model

• Selling: Produce is sold through the local cooperative society on partly deferred payments.
• Buying:
  • Daily use items are bought from local shops.
  • Bulk Purchase: Supplies for the entire year are often purchased from Mandi through cooperative members on cash payment.

3. Diversification of Livelihood

Since agricultural produce does not suffice for the whole year, the community supplements its income through:

• Manual Labor: Working as labourers.
• Small Business: Running tea shops, Dhabas, and small trading.
• Government Service: With state efforts, Swanglas have entered government jobs, administration, and other white-collar professions.

4. Other Economic Features

• Working Season: The working season in the valley is quite limited (due to harsh winters).
• Child Labor: Children above 10 years of age help their parents in various household activities.
• Common Assets: All villagers have equal access to common resources like water, roads, schools, crematoriums, and the Panchayat Ghar.

HPAS Notes: Social Taboos & Inter-Caste Relations (Swanglas)

1. Food Taboos (Commensal Rules)

Pucca vs. Kuchcha Food Hierarchy

Strict rules govern who can accept food from whom, reinforcing the social hierarchy:

• Brahmins (The Strictest): A Swangla Brahmin would accept only ‘Pucca’ food (fried in ghee/oil) and water from a Rajput or Rana.
• Lower Castes (Lohar/Chanal): They can accept both Kuchcha and Pucca food from the hands of a Brahmin and Rajput.
• The ‘Garu/Mundro’ Restriction: Traditionally, Brahmins and Rajputs would not eat Kuchcha or Pucca food cooked in the house of Garu or Mundro (mixed-caste households), except if the food was cooked by a Brahmin.
• Sidha Food: The concept of ‘Sidha’ food (uncooked ration) does not exist here.

2. Smoking Etiquette

The Hukka Rules

Smoking the Hukka is a communal activity but follows caste lines:

• Equals: The Brahmin and the Rajput can share the same pipe.
• Unequals: But while sharing with a Chanal or Sipi (lower castes), the nipple is removed before passing the pipe.

3. Ceremonial Kinship

• Term: The system of ceremonial kin exists, known as ‘mitr-bhai’.
• Obligation: A ‘mitr-bhai’ is expected to behave in the same manner as a real kin.