beth , begar and reet in hp

The Begar System in Himachal Pradesh

Definition and Overview

• Meaning: Forced labour or employing individuals without remuneration.
• Region: Prevalent since time immemorial in the erstwhile Shimla and Punjab Hill States (also practiced in Kangra, Chamba, Mandi, and the Uttaranchal hills).
• Primary Function: Served as the backbone of state logistics. Satyanand (Samuel Evan) Stokes noted, “Begar was the system by which the transportation of each state was carried on.”

Regional Differences in Begar

• British India: The population supplied beasts of burden, carts, and laborers to the governing powers.
• Shimla & Punjab Hill States: Involved direct, compulsory personal service from the subjects to their chiefs or government.

Nature and Characteristics of the System

• Revenue Integration: The obligation to perform Begar was an integral part of the state’s revenue system.
• Household Duty: It was mandatory for every household to supply one able-bodied man to perform labor for the state.
• Socio-Economic Fit: It was well-suited to the contemporary agricultural society, acting as a substitute for standard taxation since the general financial condition of the people was poor.
• Relay Transportation: State materials and officials’ luggage were physically carried by these laborers, relayed from one village to the next until they reached their final destination.

Types of Begar System in the Hill States

1. Direct Service to the Ruler and Royal Family

These forms of forced labor were directly tied to the upkeep and life events of the Chief or Ruler.

• Athwara Begar (Routine Personal Service): Daily or routine chores for the ruler’s household. This included cultivating the Chief’s land, supplying firewood to the durbar, and providing grass and bedding leaves for the royal cattle and horses.
• Jaddi-Baddi or Hela-Mela Begar (Occasional/Event-Based Service): Labor required only during major life events in the royal family, such as weddings, funerals, or the installation (coronation) of a new ruler. Tasks involved bringing grass, fuel, and doing general labor.

2. Travel, Logistics, and Administration

This was the most common use of Begar, essentially serving as the state’s transportation and hospitality network.

• Touring Begar: Exclusively for the Chief and his family. Begaris carried loads and set up camp arrangements when the royals toured the state.
• Begar for Political & High Officials: Exclusively for British/Administrative higher-ups. Begaris had to manage dak bungalows (rest houses) for free and provide services to administrative officials touring the Shimla district.
• Gaonsar Begar (Village-to-Village Relay): Utilized for lower-level state officials (tehsil, police). Residents of a village had to transport official baggage and government mail (dak) to the next village, and provide unpaid coolies for these tours.
• Begar for State Guests: Labor dedicated simply to carrying the luggage and managing the requirements of official guests visiting the state.

3. Infrastructure and Public Works

These involved heavy manual labor for the physical upkeep of the state’s infrastructure.

• Batrawal or Hallah ka Begar (State Construction): Transporting heavy materials like stone and wood to build or repair State buildings and bridges. (Highly prevalent in Bushahr, Balsan, and Rewingarh).
• Road Begar (Routine Maintenance): The mandatory repair of existing village roads and bridle tracks. Crucially, this was not used to construct new roads, only to maintain old ones.

4. Specialized and Miscellaneous Begar

These forms of Begar were unique, either involving animals, hunting, or religion.

• Shikar Begar (Hunting Expeditions): Locals were forced to act as “beaters” (driving wild game toward the hunters) during hunting trips for high officials, the ruler’s friends, or the Viceroy. Distinction: This was one of the rare times laborers might receive bakshish (tips) equivalent to a daily wage.
• Mule Begar (Requisitioning Animals): Instead of human labor, this targeted shopkeepers and traders who owned mules. They were forced to surrender their pack animals to the state for trade/transport purposes (e.g., 15 days a year in Keonthal).
• Religious Begar: Labor strictly dedicated to the local gods. Begaris worked to prepare for ceremonies and regional festivals celebrating local deities.

Quick Distinction Guide

If you need to quickly distinguish between them for an exam or quick review, use this comparative table:

Gradations of Begar in Kangra

1. Pund-Begar (Heavy Manual Labor)

• Nature of Work: The physical carrying of heavy loads.
• Social Status: Considered the most onerous (burdensome) and meanest form of forced labor.
• Assigned Demographic: Forced upon the lower agricultural classes who were not permitted to wear the juneo (the sacred caste thread).

2. Satbahuk-Begar (Light Courier Service)

• Nature of Work: Carrying messages, letters, and small parcels that could be easily conveyed by hand.
• Social Status: A much lighter duty that did not involve social degradation or a significant sacrifice of personal comfort.
• Assigned Demographic: Exclusively reserved for the higher-status agricultural classes who held the privilege of wearing the juneo.

3. Begaru Begar (Camp Provisioning)

• Nature of Work: Providing raw materials, specifically wood and grass, for official camps.
• Social Status/Conditioning: These laborers were explicitly excluded from carrying personal loads or luggage due to rigid social dogmas.
• Assigned Demographic: Imposed upon “outcast” communities (such as the Chumars). Their supposed ritual “impurity” is what ironically saved them from being forced into the heavy load-carrying of Pund-Begar.

Comparative Distinction

Historical Relevance

The Kangra model illustrates how the Begar system was not just an economic or administrative tool for the state, but an institution deeply intertwined with the prevailing social and caste orthodoxies of the time. The severity of the forced labor was directly inversely proportional to a group’s social standing.

Institutional Mechanisms of Begar in Kullu

The system in Kullu closely mirrored the Jaddi-Baddi or Hela types of Begar, functioning primarily to sustain the royal household and manage official touring.

• Routine Palace Service & Exactions:
  • Material Exactions: Every household was required to supply annual goods (such as grass rope, charcoal, or vegetables) dictated by their specific occupation.
  • Palace Duty: Each house provided one man to work at the Raja’s house for seven days. According to an 1898 record by Deputy Commissioner A. Anderson, there were about 1,211 begaris attached to the palace, with an individual’s turn coming roughly once every 150 weeks (about 2.5 years).
• Special Occasion Begar: During major royal events like weddings or funerals, the demand spiked. Batches of 50 begaris were drafted to serve for 10 consecutive days.
• Gaonsar (Official Tours): The village-to-village relay system was enforced during the tours of state officials, frequently requiring the mobilization of 20 or more begaris at a single time.

Topographical Constraints and Begar in Lahaul

In Lahaul, the harsh geography and brief functional seasons directly dictated the three frequent types of Begar enforced upon the local population.

• 1. Begar for Travelers and Officials (Load Carrying):
  • Nature: Carrying loads for visiting officials and travelers.
  • The Seasonal Burden: This was considered an exceptionally heavy burden. Because of the climate, the demand for this labor was entirely concentrated within the brief six-month summer window. This severely disrupted the locals, as those same six months were the only time they could complete their own essential agricultural fieldwork and annual trading journeys.
• 2. Road Begar (Decentralized Maintenance):
  • Nature: The repair and upkeep of highways.
  • Administration: The responsibility was divided geographically. Each kothi (administrative unit or group of villages) was assigned a specific, designated length of the highway to maintain.
• 3. Mule/Horse Begar (High-Altitude Transport):
  • Nature: The mandatory supply of pack animals (horses/mules) for travelers crossing high-altitude mountain passes, specifically the Bara Lacha and Shinkal passes.
  • Administration: The obligation was collectively managed by ten kothis and internally distributed among the different landholdings within those kothis.

Relevance to Regional Administration and Economy

• Geographical Adaptation: The differences between Kullu and Lahaul illustrate how the Begar system adapted to local topography. Lahaul’s system heavily emphasized traversing dangerous passes (Mule Begar) and managing brief seasonal windows, whereas Kullu’s system was centralized around the palace’s continuous socio-economic needs.
• Economic Impact: The system acted as a regressive physical tax. In regions like Lahaul, it actively crippled the local economy by siphoning off necessary human capital during the critical summer agricultural and trading seasons.

The Begar System in Suket and Mandi

In Suket and Mandi, the forced labor system was stratified into three distinct categories based on the duration, intensity, and nature of the work:

• Phutkar Begar (Minor Service):
  • Nature: Trifling or minor services rendered to the royal court (durbar).
  • Example: Carriage of state mail (dak).
• Phant or Jhamret Begar (Infrastructure & Occasional Service):
  • Nature: A blended form of labor encompassing public works and special events.
  • Tasks: Ordinarily involved repairing village roads for about 10 days. It also absorbed the obligations of Baddi-Jadi (labor during royal marriages or funerals) and duties during the tours of British officials.
• Pala Begar (Extended Fixed-Term Service):
  • Nature: The most burdensome form of Begar, imposed primarily on the agricultural classes.
  • Duration: Mandated state service for a fixed, extended period varying from 2 to 4 months annually.
  • Remuneration: Unlike most purely unpaid labor, Pala begaris were provided a bare subsistence ration consisting of 2 seers kham of rice, 1 pao kham of dal, and 4 tolas of Guma salt.

The “Panj Haqq” (Five Rights) of Begar in Chamba

The Chamba state formalized its exactions into five distinct categories, collectively known as Panj Haqq, alongside the presence of standard Athwara (routine household) Begar.

1. Royal Tours & Shikar: Laborers attended to the Raja during state tours and hunting (shikar) expeditions. While general service was unpaid, those specifically carrying loads were uniquely remunerated at standard traveler rates.
2. High Official Gaonsar: Functionally similar to the village relay system, but specifically designated for carrying the baggage of the Superintendent of Punjab Hill States or other high-ranking British officials on duty.
3. Jaddi Baddi (Royal Life Events): Mandatory labor exacted during major royal family events, specifically marriages and deaths.
4. Palace Construction (Batrawal equivalent): The heavy physical labor of transporting stones and wood explicitly for the repair or construction of the royal palace.
5. Wizarat Road Begar: The mandatory repair of roads and bridges within a specific administrative zone (wizarat).

Exemptions in Chamba: Crucially, the Road Begar in Chamba was not universally applied. Specific classes were legally exempted, including:

• State officials in the parganas and subordinate staff (jhutiyars).
• Individuals holding the specific post of Akkar.
• Zamindars (landlords).
• Sasan (land grants/personnel) attached to the temples.

Historical and Economic Relevance of the Begar System’s Decline

• Foundation of the State Economy: The Begar system was practically universal across the native states of Himachal Pradesh. Before modernization, it functioned as the fundamental economic engine for state logistics, infrastructure maintenance, and royal subsistence in a region where monetary taxation was unfeasible.
• Catalyst for Commutation: The oppressive nature of unpaid, physically demanding labor became unsustainable as the region’s economic base shifted.
• Transition to a Cash Economy: The introduction and expansion of lucrative cash crops—specifically apples and potatoes—empowered the hill populations financially. As agriculturalists gained the capacity to generate actual capital, they pushed to commute their physical labor obligations into standard cash taxation, marking the definitive end of the feudal Begar economy.

Exemptions from Begar

Exempted Groups:

• Caste & Social Status: Brahmins, influential Rajputs, and “respectable” men of lower grades.
• Administration: State and village officials.
• Military: Indian Army soldiers who were state subjects (exempted from 1840 onward).
• Economic Privilege: Wealthy Bania families (commuted physical labor into cash payments).

Those Who Bore the Burden:

• Legally shifted onto the lower socio-economic classes (Bahri, Chamar, Lohar, Koli, Rehr).

Exam Relevance

• Socio-Economic Stratification: The system functioned as a regressive “caste tax.” It institutionalized inequality by exploiting marginalized communities while co-opting the loyalty of social, military, and economic elites.

Begar’s Social Implications

• Class Exploitation & Inequality: Cultivators and artisans faced relentless forced labor. The system favored the rich, placing a disproportionate, double burden on lower classes.
• Alternative Elite Obligations: While exempt from manual labor, upper castes in states like Mandi were compelled to provide military, religious, or administrative services instead.
• Forced Kinship Structures: To ensure a continuous labor supply, the state heavily penalized property division, artificially sustaining large joint families.
• Rise of Polyandry: Forced joint-living and prolonged male absence due to Begar duties directly encouraged polyandrous marriages for domestic and economic stability.
• Administrative Corruption: Single-male families frequently resorted to bribing local officials (Patwaris/Lambardars) to evade labor obligations.
• Economic Inefficiency: Unpaid labor bred deliberate idleness, resulting in demoralization and significant state economic wastage.
• The Beth System Comparison: Bethu labor was comparatively more oppressive, permanently binding workers to a specific master’s land and socially isolating them.

economic implications of the begar system summarized:

• Economic Dependency: The entire economic life of the hill states was heavily dependent on this forced labor system.
• Burden on the Poor: It disproportionately penalized small peasants. While wealthy Zamindars avoided it by sending bethu substitutes, the poor were forced to abandon their own fields during critical crop seasons.
• Financial Losses: As paid outside labor opportunities grew, unpaid begar caused significant financial hardship. It resulted in lost wages and prevented families from taking permanent outside employment.
• Importance of Bethus: Bethus were economically indispensable, serving as the sole laboring class cultivating lands for rulers and large Zamindars.

Context & British Demand

• Cause: British construction of cantonments, sanatoria, and hill stations required massive forced labor.
• 1827: Governor-General Lord Amherst’s Kalka-Shimla trip required over 17,000 coolies.
• Conditions: Extremely low wages, forced conscription, and detention for weeks far from home.

Early Reforms & Reversals

• 1847–1852: William Edward (Superintendent, Shimla Hill States) condemned begar as serfdom. He noted public service often required 15,000–20,000 men.
• Edward’s Reforms: * Exempted families from begar if they sent children to government schools (increased attendance).
  • Banned government officers from supplying coolies to private parties.
• Reversal: Lord William Hay (Edward’s successor) abandoned the scheme due to British travelers’ resentment over fixed rates and porter shortages.

Awareness & Rebellions

• Shift: Education prompted locals to petition settlement officers, demanding cash levies instead of personal begar.
• 1893: Four northern Keonthal parganas (Matiana, Shilli, Rajona, Chandra) revolted against athwara-begar.
• 1910: Kanets and Kolis petitioned the Junga settlement officer to abolish athwara.
• Key Rebellions: Kuthar (1895), Keonthal (1901), Khaneti (1906), Theog (1910–28), Kumarsain (1920), Dhami (1937).

Kotgarh Agitation

• Leader: S.E. Stokes (missionary in Kotgarh) formed a vigilance committee and petitioned Col. Elliot (Superintendent of Hill States).
• June 1921: Kotgarh villagers refused to render begar during the Superintendent’s visit.
• Sept 1921: Following meetings between Stokes and the Deputy Commissioner, the British abolished begar in Simla district.

Timeline of Abolition in Other States

• 1884: Begar abolished in Chamba, Mandi, and Kangra.
• Jan 1, 1917: Mandi abolished pala begar (only casual begar retained).
• 1929: Bhajji commuted beth into cash.
• Political Impact: The begar system was a major catalyst for organizing Praja Mandals.
• Oct 1944: British model policy officially prohibited unpaid forced labor in Simla Hill States.
• May 1948: All begar (paid and unpaid) was completely prohibited within Himachal Pradesh territory.

reet

Geographical Prevalence

• Practiced since time immemorial in Shimla Hill States, Mandi, Kullu, and Kangra.

Definition of Reet Marriage

• A marriage contracted strictly by paying a price, completely devoid of rituals or ceremonies.
• The term also refers to the specific payment made during the transaction.

Financial Mechanics (Reet Money)

• Amount: Ranged from Rs. 100 to Rs. 500, occasionally reaching Rs. 2,000.
• Recipients: Paid to parents/guardians for unmarried girls, or to current husbands for married women.

Social & Legal Relevance

• Instant Annulment: Payment ipso facto annulled any previous marriage.
• Status Shift: Concubinage with the new purchaser instantly constituted a valid marriage.
• Fluidity: No limit on the number of women acquired; contracts were dissolved as easily as they were formed.
• Status of Women: Reduced women to chattel and commodities subjected to repeated buying and selling.

Societal Demographics

• Practiced by: Lowest social strata (Kolis, Chanals, Chamars) and also prevalent among Kanets in most Hill States.
• Excluded groups: Not observed among high-caste Brahmins and Rajputs.

Social & Health Consequences

• Devaluation of Marriage: Domestic ties weakened; marriage lost its foundational role in social stability.
• Bombay Chronicle Critique: Condemned the custom for reducing marriage to a purely mechanical money bargain, resulting in conditions akin to general promiscuity and disastrous effects on societal character.
• Disease Transmission: The high turnover of partners facilitated the widespread transmission of syphilis.

Commodification & Exploitation

• Women as Property: Husbands viewed wives as disposable, marketable commodities used to instantly raise capital.
• Human Trafficking: Operators (e.g., from Shimla Bazaar) routinely purchased girls from hill states under the guise of Reet.
• Coerced Resale & Prostitution: Purchasers deliberately starved acquired women to force them to abscond to new buyers (generating a resale profit) or forced them into bazaar prostitution for livelihood.

Administrative Response & Legal Status

• 19th Century Inaction: Lax British administration caused early eradication efforts to fail, allowing the custom to persist.
• 1927 Legal Prohibitions (Theoretical):
  • Prohibited on paper: Baghat, Bushahr, and Jubbal.
  • Agreed to Sub-Committee Rules: Nalagarh, Mahlog, and Kuthar.
  • Postponed Implementation: Baghal and Bhajji agreed to draft rules, but the Governor in Council delayed implementation until their minor rulers attained maturity.
• 1927 Summary: Only 8 out of 27 Shimla Hill States had made Reet illegal (or were prepared to) in theory.
• Post-1928 Stagnation: The government ceased interest, and hill chiefs failed to enforce the drafted regulations.