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Chronological Overview of History

• Pre-Historic Period
• Indus Valley Civilisation: Kols
• Vedic Period: Kiratas, Khasas, Indo-Aryans
• Period of Janapadas: Audumbaras, Trigarta, Kulluta, Kunindas
• Mauryan Period: Alexander, Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka
• Post-Mauryan Period: Sunga, Kushanas
• Gupta Period
• Post-Gupta Period: Huns, Apalhakurai Period
• Harshavardhana Era
• Influence of Kashmir Rulers
• Rise of Rajput Kingdoms

The Paleolithic Era

During the Paleolithic Era, early humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers. They primarily stayed in the Shiwalik Foothills to avoid the harsh, glaciated climate of the higher altitudes.

Key Paleolithic Sites:

1. Banganga-Beas Valley (Kangra): Famous for the Sohan Culture.
2. Sirsa-Sutlej Valley: Located in the Nalagarh/Solan region.
3. Markanda Valley: Located in Sirmaur.

Prehistoric Tribes of the Himalayas

The Vedic Period & Aryan Migration

The Aryan migration consisted of three main branches: one moving towards Spain, the Khasas, and the Indo-Aryans. The Indo-Aryans arrived in the region first, followed later by the Khasas.

1. Early Indo-Aryans

• Migration Route: Central Asia $\rightarrow$ Iran $\rightarrow$ Hindukush $\rightarrow$ Indus Valley (Sapta-Sindhu) $\rightarrow$ Foothills of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh.
• Key Conflicts: * Fought the 40-year war against the Kirata King Shambara.
  • Das Rajan War: King Sudas versus an alliance of 10 Kings (5 Aryan and 5 Non-Aryan).

2. The Khasas (Later Aryans)

• Migration Route: Pamir (Kashgar) $\rightarrow$ Kashmir $\rightarrow$ Himachal, Garhwal, Kumaon, Nepal.
• Social & Political Standing: * Initially referred to as Mlecchas by early Indo-Aryans.
  • Later recognized as Kshatriyas (a warlike tribe) by the Indo-Aryans.
  • The most powerful figures among them were called Mavi or Mavana.
• Language & Script: Spoke a Sanskrit-like language (ancestor to modern Pahari) and used the Tankri script for writing.
• Religion: Followed a Village Deity system; the Mahasu Cult was highly prominent.

Khasa Cultural & Social Structures

Military & Martial Arts:

• Practiced a martial art known as Thoda.
• Organized into warrior groups called Khoonds.
• Divided into two main factions: Shatha (Kauravas) and Pasha (Pandavas).

Marriage Customs:

• Biyah: Arranged marriage.
• Praino: Love marriage.
• Gadar: A specific ceremony held at the groom’s home.

Inheritance Laws:

• Jethong: The eldest child receives an extra share of the inheritance.
• Kanishong: The youngest child receives an extra share.

Cuisine & Attire:

• Diet: Staples included Poltu and Siddu.
• Men’s Dress: Achkan.
• Women’s Dress: Gachi, Chuba, Dohru, and Thipu.

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The Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BC)

During this era, there was significant mixing between the Indo-Aryans and the Khasas. This period was also characterized by territorial conflicts among the Mavanas.

Key Locations and Associated Figures:

• Renuka Lake (Sirmaur): Associated with Sage Jamdagini.
• Vashisht Kund (Manali): Associated with Sage Vashisht.
• Vyas Cave (Bilaspur): Associated with Sage Vyas.
• Nermand (Kullu): Associated with Parshuram.
• Hatkoti (Jubbal, Shimla): Associated with the Pandavas.
• Mandi: Associated with Mandavya Rishi.

The Era of Janapadas (Beginning ~600 BC)

As the Later Vedic Period came to a close around 600 BC, the era of Janapadas began. A total of 16 Janapadas were formed in the plains, while 4 emerged in Himachal Pradesh. The four in HP were Audumbara, Trigarta, Kulluta, and Kunindas. Information regarding these is sourced from Panini and the Mahabharata.

Types of Janapadas:

• According to Katyayana, there were two types of Janapadas: Monarchy and Republic (Sangha Janapada).
• The Janapadas located in HP were strictly Sangha Janapadas.
• Panini referred to them as Ayudhjivi Sangha , while Kautilya referred to them as Sastro lajini.

The Audumbaras

• Location & Capital: They resided in the lower hills between Pathankot and Jawalamukhi. Their capital was Pratisthana (modern-day Pathankot).
• Significance & Trade: They formed a vital link along the trade route connecting Taxila with the Gangetic Valley (Magadha) and Kashmir. Pathankot served as a commercial hub for Kangra, Nurpur, and Chamba.
• Origins: They formed an independent state in the 2nd century BC and are considered descendants of the sage Vishwamitra, the founder of the Kaushik Gotra (according to the Mahabharata).
• Historical Theory: Scholar J. Przyluski suggests that the Audumbaras bore the brunt of the Aryan invasion in the 8th Century BC. Furthermore, Chandergomin’s Vrittis (540) mention the Shalvas from the 8th Century BC. Shatapatha Brahman, implying the Audumbaras were an offshoot of the Shalvas.
• Economy & Religion: They were a prosperous society (as noted in the Buddhist Vinaya Pitaka) whose primary occupations were sheep rearing and the sale of woolen goods. Religiously, they were Shaivites.

Coinage & Lineages:

• Locations Found: Pathankot, Jwalamukhi, Gurdaspur, Hoshiarpur, and Kangra.
• Material & Script: Made of copper and silver. They featured the Brahmi script on the front (obverse) and Kharoshti on the back (reverse).

Sources of History:

• Markandeya Purana
• Brihat Samhita
• Panini’s Ganapatha (mentions Audumbara alongside Jallandhara)
• Vinaya Pitaka

The Trigarta State

Established in the 5th Century BC, Trigarta is the oldest princely state in Himachal Pradesh. It was founded by Susharma Chandra (originally Bhuma Chand). The original capital was in Multan.

• Territory: Spanned across the Beas, Ravi, and Sutlej rivers, covering modern-day Kangra. “Trigarta” referred to the territory in the hills , while “Jalandhara” referred to the territory in the plains. Susharma Chandra is also credited with building the Nagarkot Fort.
• Mahabharata Connection: They were allies of the Kauravas. They attacked Virata, the King of Matasya, indicating that Trigarta and Matasya were neighbors. This was the same region where the Pandavas spent their exile.
• Political Structure: Mentioned by Panini as Ayudhjivis (closely connected with the Yaudheyas). It was a confederation of 6 states known as the Trigarta Shashtas. It represented a group of mountainous republics categorized under the Parvata-Shranih (North-West group) alongside the Niharas, Darvas, and Karna Pravaranas.

The 6 Members of the Confederation (According to the Kashika):

1. Kaundoparatha
2. Kraushakti
3. Dandaki
4. Janaki
5. Jalamani
6. Brahmgupta

Sources of History:

• Literary: The earliest mention is by Panini. The Mahabharata and Brihat Samhita mention Trigarta alongside other tribes of Punjab. The Vishnu Purana notably couples Kuluta and the Audumbaras.
• Numismatics: Recognized as an independent entity by the 2nd Century BC due to the discovery of a square-shaped coin bearing the legend “Trakata Janapadasa”.
• Language on Coins: Primarily Brahmi, though sometimes Kharoshti.

The Kulluta State

• Location: Situated in the Upper Beas Valley, which corresponds to modern-day Kullu.
• Capital: Their ancient capital was Naggar.
• Founder: The state was founded by Behang Manipal, who originally came from Prayag.
• Earliest Record: The first known mention of Kulluta was in the Katreyadi Ganga by the Sanskrit scholar Panini.

Sources of Kulluta History

• Ramayana & Mahabharata: Explicitly mentioned as a distinct political entity called “Kulluta”.
• Vishnu Purana: Described as a country lying in North India.
• Brihat Samhita: Grouped alongside the Kulutas, Audumbaras, Kulindas, and Tanganas.
• Markandeya Purana: Contains references to the state.
• Mudrarakshasa (by Vishakadatta): Notes that Kullu was a distinct political entity and that Chandragupta formed alliances with Himalayan states to recruit a diverse army.
• Numismatics: Evidence includes a copper (Cu) coin of Virayasya dating back to 100 AD. The coin bears the legend “Virayasarajna Kulutasya“. It uses the Sanskrit script on the front, with Prakrit and Kharoshti scripts on the reverse.

The Kunindas

• Geographical Region: Located between the Beas, Sutlej, and Yamuna rivers, spanning from Ambala to Saharanpur and into Western Uttarakhand.
• Core Territory: Primarily occupied the Shimla and Sirmaur hills in Himachal Pradesh.
• Capital: Kalsi (in the Garhwal Region), which was also known as Kalkoot.
• Contemporary Descendants: The Kanets, who currently form the bulk of the population in Shimla, Kullu, and Sirmaur.
• Political Structure: They operated as a Republic.
• The “Raja” Title: This was not a king, but rather a title held by all members of the tribal assembly.
• The “Maharaja” Title: Held by the President or Chief of the Assembly.
• The “Amoghabhuti” Title: This was an official title adopted by the rulers, rather than a specific personal name.
• Economy: They practiced transhumance, using the plains as winter grazing grounds for their cattle, similar to the modern Gaddi tribe.
• Contemporaries: In the plains, they coexisted with the Yaudheyas, Malavas, and Arjunyas. In the hills, their neighbors were the Audumbaras, Trigarta, and Kulluta.

Literary Sources for the Kunindas

• Mahabharata: States that the Kunindas were neighbors of the Trigarta and were eventually conquered by Arjun.
• Puranas: Mentioned in the Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, and Markandeya Purana.
• Ptolemy’s Geographia: Notes that the Kunindas occupied the mountains where the Beas, Sutlej, Ganga, and Yamuna rivers had their sources.
• Varahamihira: Refers to them as the people of Kuluta and Sirhind.

Kuninda Coinage & Trade

Coin legends were primarily inscribed in Prakrit. The usage of Brahmi script on local copper coins led historians to conclude that the local population used the Brahmi script.

Timeline Shift Based on Coinage

The evolution of their coinage reveals a significant shift in both political and religious identity over the centuries.

The Mauryan Empire

Alexander & Chandragupta Maurya

• Alexander’s Invasion (327 BC): Alexander the Great reached as far as the Beas River. In Punjab, he was opposed by republican people, whom Panini referred to as the Ayudhjivi Sangha.
• Chandragupta Maurya’s Rise: * He actively utilized the Khasa tribe in his army.
  • His military included the Vahlika Forces, which consisted of Gandharas, Madras, Sindhus, and Vahlikas.
  • His diverse army also included Yavanas, Kiratas, Sakas, and Kambojas.
  • He formed a strategic alliance with Parvataka, who was likely a ruler of Trigarta.
• The 324 BC Opposition: Chandragupta faced a coalition of five kings, which notably included Chitravarman of Kuluta.
• Primary Sources: The Mudrarakshasa (Sanskrit) and Parisishtaparvan (Jain).

Ashoka’s Reign

• Political Status: The Himachal region accepted Mauryan Lordship but remained internally sovereign.
• Buddhist Missions: Ashoka sent a Buddhist mission to the Himalayas led by Majjhima.
• Mission Members (from the Source – Mahavamsha): Kasapagotta, Dundubisara, Sahadeva, and Mulakadeva.
• Region Covered: Spanned 5 countries of the Himalayas, including modern HP, Kumaon, and Garhwal.
• Mauryan Architecture in HP:
  1. A Stupa in the Kullu Valley (later mentioned by the Chinese traveler Hieun Tsang).
  2. A Rock Edict located at Kalsi, at the confluence of the Tons and Yamuna rivers.

Post-Mauryan Period

The Sunga Dynasty (187–75 BC)

• During this period, the Janapadas became independent entities.
• These independent states began issuing their own coins.

The Kushanas (20 AD–225 AD)

• The Kushanas successfully controlled Himachal Pradesh.
• Numismatic Evidence:
  • Kasauli-Kalka Road: Discovery of 382 Copper (Cu) coins of Wima Kadphises and 40 Cu coins of Kanishka.
  • Khanyara (Kangra): Discovery of 2 coins of Wema Kadphises, 1 coin of Kanishka, and 1 coin of Vasudeva.
• Decline (2nd Century AD): As the Kushanas declined, the Janapadas regained strength. A coalition of Kunindas, Yaudheyas, and Arjunyas from Punjab successfully pushed the Kushanas beyond the Sutlej River.
• 4th Buddhist Council Location: There is historical ambiguity regarding its location.
  • Theory A: It was held at the Kundalvana Vihara in Kashmir.
  • Theory B: It was held at the Kuvana Monastery in Jalandhara, the capital of Trigarta.

The Gupta & Post-Gupta Periods

Gupta Empire (4th Century AD)

• Samudragupta’s Conquest: Samudragupta captured territories in the region.
• Source: The Harisena Inscription on the Ashokan Pillar at Prayagraj explicitly mentions tribes like the Yaudheyas, Arjunayas, Madrakas, Kullutas, and Kartipura.
• Literary Source: The poet Kalidas mentions Himalayan tribes in his works Kumarasambhava and Meghdoot.

Political Upheaval & Restructuring

• Collapse of the Audumbaras: Their eastern territory was captured by Trigarta, while their western territory fell to the Madrakas.
• Fragmentation of the Kunindas: The Kuninda state broke apart into several new entities, while some of their land was encroached upon by the Kullutas.
  • New Kingdoms Formed: Brahmpura (Ramganga Valley), Govisana (Kashipur), Kartipur (Katyur Valley of Kumaon), Bushahr, and the Sirmaur Kingdom.

6th Century AD Developments

• Sirmaur: The Lakha Mandal Temple Inscription mentions Singhpur, referring to Sirmaur.
• Trigarta Expansion: Trigarta expanded aggressively, encroaching on Audumbara in the west, Gabdika (Bharmour) in the north, and Sukshetra (Sutlej Valley) in the east.
• Rise of Bharmour: Maru Varman captured the upper Ravi Valley and established his capital at Brahmpura (modern Bharmour).
• End of Republics: The original Trigarta confederation of 6 members finally broke apart. Overall, the region experienced a permanent shift from a Republican system (Sangha Janapadas) to Monarchy.

Post-Gupta Period & The Huns

Following the invasion by the Huns, Samudragupta defeated them, causing some to flee and settle in the hills. Their descendants are known today as the Gaddi and Gujjar tribes.

The Apthakurai Period (500 AD – 600 AD)

This era was characterized by the institutionalization of localized hereditary domains, known as Thakurais and Ranhuis.

• Power Hierarchy: Thakurs (Thakurai) < Rana (Ranhun) < Raja.
• Origins of the System: The decline of the Guptas led to the instability of the feudal samanta system. This allowed specific Kshatriya families to emerge. The title of Rajana and its associated military relationship became a hereditary right.
• Role of the Ranas: Ranas operated similarly to European Feudal Barons and owed obligations to the Raja, their Superior Lord. Historical fountain slabs depict them as knights armed with swords riding horseback.
• Political Balance: The prominence of Ranas and Thakurs depended heavily on the central power; a strong Raja suppressed them, while a weak Raja allowed them to gain prominence.
• Loss of Power: From the 8th century onwards, they gave way to Rajput principalities due to foreign invasions pushing new rulers into the hills. The once-independent Ranas became mere tributaries.

Geographical Power Distribution

• Accessible Valleys: Controlled by a Raja (e.g., Trigarta, Kulluta).
• Inaccessible / Remote Valleys: Controlled by Ranas and Thakurs, who held interior pockets and small fiefs.

The Era of Harshavardhan (606 AD – 647 AD)

• Capitals: Patliputra, Thaneshwar, and Kannauj.
• Prominent Religions: Buddhism and Brahmanism.

Hieun Tsang’s Visit (630 AD – 644 AD)

The Chinese traveler stayed in India for 13 years, with a notable visit to Jalandhara Trigarta.

• 1st Visit (635 AD): Stayed in Jalandhara for 4 months as the guest of Raja Utitas (Adima).
• Return Journey (643 AD): Passed through again while returning from Kannauj.

Hieun Tsang’s Regional Observations:

• Geography & Climate: The region spanned 1000 Li (267 Km) East to West and 800 Li (213 Km) North to South. The climate was warm and moist, supporting fertile lands that grew rice and pulses.
• Society: The locals were brave and rustic, while the wealthy lived in well-planned houses.
• Religion: He noted the presence of Pashupatas, Hinayana, and Mahayana sects.

Specific Locations Visited:

• Kulluta (‘Ku-lu-ta’): According to Alexander Cunningham, Hieun Tsang travelled 700 Li (187 Km) from Jalandhara to reach Kulluta. He documented a Stupa built by Ashoka, a stone image of Avalokiteshwara at the Kapila Muni Temple (Kelat), and Arhats/Rishis living in mountain caves. He also noted the export of medicinal herbs to Roman Territories.
• Surughna (Sirmaur): Located 67 Km from Thaneswar and likely a feudatory of Harsha. Hieun Tsang stayed here with the monk Jayaguptam.
• Lahaul: He referred to this region as Lo-u-Lo and Mo-Lo-So (San-bo-ho).

7th to 9th Century Political Shifts

In the 7th Century, prominent regions included Jalandhara, Kulluta, Surughna, Bharmour, Spiti, and various Thakurais/Ranhuis.

Rajput Migrations

Due to the threat of Islamic invasions, there was a significant migration of Rajput clans from the plains (specifically the Rajasthan and Delhi areas) into the hills. These incoming clans eventually engaged with the established Rajput Rajas, Ranas, and Thakurs of the region.